Coconut (cocos nucifera) is one of the world most useful and important perennial plants. A coconut fruit is made up of an outer exocarp, a thick fibrous fruit coat known as husk, underneath is the hard protective endocarp or shell, the edible endosperm and the milk.
Everything in between the shell and the outer coating or exocarp of the coconut seed is considered coco coir.
Coco coir, also known as coconut fiber, is a natural, renewable material derived from the husks of coconuts. The fibres are extracted from the outer husk of coconut, which are fibrous material found between the hard, internal shell and the outer coat of the coconut.

The coconut coir was initially considered a waste byproduct of coconut farming. In the past, coconuts were only grown for their edible interior pulp and the use of the husk for fire making. However, people came to realize the husks on the outside of coconuts are also quite useful.
Soil, a grow media was then the only medium on which people recognize for growing crops. Unfortunately, the imperfection of soils, a reason why farmers add soil amendments to improve their soils and make it a growing place for plants, still does not make soil a media for soilless farming. As new technology was developed such as soilless farming coco coir came to being as a new media for growing crops. Today, growing media such as coco coir are used in place of soil and peat moss. This substrate gives plants a supportive medium within which to grow and expand their roots. In their rawest form, soilless substrates like coconut coir do not contain any nutrients, so they are considered “inert.” However, coco coir is sometimes mixed with amendments like bat guano and other types of fertilizers to make blends and increase the nutrient status of the coir.
In Hydroponic farming, growers are drawn to raw, inert coco coir because it gives them precision control over their watering schedules.
To be successful in hydro growing, the growers must create nutrient mixes within very specific ranges of pH, PPM, and EC. To do so, they must use inert substrates which do not cause fluctuations in pH reading.
Coconut coir has a pH reading of 7, therefore, considered “ neutral.” As such, using raw coco coir as a hydroponic substrate will not influence the pH of irrigation water. For this reason, coco coir is the ideal substrate to use for hydroponics farming.

WORLD PRODUCERS OF COCONUT COIR
Major producers of Coir in the world as at year 2020 include [Country Weight (tonnes)]:
India -586,686, Vietnam- 390,541, Sri Lanka -161,791,
Thailand- 64,098, Ghana- 39,548, and all others – 33,960.
Total world coir fibre production is 1,276,624 tonnes (1,256,462 long tons; 1,407,237 short tons), with India( mainly in the coastal region of Kerala State), producing 60% of the total world supply of white coir fibre. Sri Lanka produces 36% of the total brown fibre output. Over 50% of the coir fibre produced annually throughout the world is consumed in the countries of origin, mainly India. Together, India and Sri Lanka produced 59% of the coir produced in 2020. Sri Lanka remains the world’s largest exporter of coir fibre and coir fibre based products.

HISTORY OF COCONUT COIR

Sennit, a type of  cordage  made by plaiting strands of dried fibre or grass can be used ornamentally in crafts, like a kind of macramé, or to make straw hats. Sennit is an important material in the cultures of Oceania, where it is used in traditional architecture, boat building, fishing and as an ornamentation. It is made from plaited coconut fibre on a traditional house in Fiji
The name coir comes from கயிறு (kayiru), കയർ (kayar), the Tamil in india and Malayalam words respectively for cord or rope (traditionally, a kind of rope made from the coconut fibre). Ropes and cordage have been made from coconut fibre since ancient times. The Austronesian peoples, who first domesticated coconuts, used coconut fibre extensively for ropes and sennit in building houses and lashed-lug plank boats in their voyages in both the Pacific and the Indian Oceans.
Later Indian and Arab navigators who sailed the seas to Malaya, China, and the Persian Gulf centuries ago also used coir for their ship ropes. Arab writers of the 11th century AD referred to the extensive use of coir for ship ropes and rigging.
A coir industry in the UK was recorded before the second half of the 19th century. During 1840, Captain Widely, in co-operation with Captain Logan and Thomas Treloar, founded the known carpet firms of Treloar and Sons in Ludgate Hill, England, for the manufacture of coir into various fabrics suitable for floor coverings.

PRODUCTION OF COCO COIR
The coconut fruit is made up of different layers. The coir lies between outer exocarp to the inner shell. To produce the coco coir, the fibrous layer of the fruit is separated from the hard shell (manually) by driving the fruit down onto a spike to split it (dehusking). A well-seasoned husker can manually separate 2,000 coconuts per day. Machines can also be used to crush the whole fruit to give the loose fibres. These machines can process up to 2,000 coconuts per hour.

After removal of the shell and the endosperm, the multipled layered coconut husk fiber are placed on a stone ground, soaked then dried for over a year.
To get coconut coir ready for hydroponic and gardening uses, it must undergo extensive processing as follows:.
Firstly, the coir is remove from the coconuts by soaking the husks in water to loosen and soften them. This is either done in tidal waters or freshwater. If done in tidal waters, the coconut coir will take up a large amount of salt, which will need to be flushed out by the manufacturer at a later stage.
Then, they are removed from the water bath and dried for over a year. After the drying process, which is quite extensive, the coir is organized into bales. These bales are then chopped and processed into various formats, from chips, to “croutons”, to classic ground coconut coir.
In 2009, researchers at CSIR’s National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology in Thiruvananthapuram developed a biological process for the extraction of coir fibre from coconut husk without polluting the environment. The technology uses enzymes to separate the fibres by converting and solubilizing plant compounds to curb the pollution of waters caused by retting of husks.

PARTS OF THE COCONUT HUSK THAT FORM THE COIR
Coco coir is made from a few different parts of the coconut husk. The three primary parts of the coconut husk are the pith, fiber, and chips.  These materials are used in a variety of consumer products such as soil amendments, top dressings, floor mats, rope, brushes and fishing nets.

THE PITH: The pith of the coconut husk comprises of extremely fine material. Coconut pith is responsible for the water retention abilities of coco coir.
Note: coconut pith is not used as a stand-alone cultivation medium because it does not drain well.

THE FIBER: Coconut fiber is the long, stringlike material that encompasses coconut husks. This fiber is extremely strong, yet it does not absorb water. As such, coconut fiber is responsible for giving coco coir its aeration qualities.

THE CHIPS: Coconut chips are exactly what they sound like – chunks of coconut husks that resemble wood chips.

PROPERTIES OF COCO COIR

1. Coco coir is a natural, eco-friendly alternative to traditional grow media.

2. It has a natural pH of around 5.5 to 6.8.

3. It promotes healthy root development.

4. It supports beneficial microbe additives.

5. It is used in products such as floor mats, doormats, brushes, and mattresses.

6. There are two varieties of coir, the white and brown coir. The brown coir (made from ripe coconut) are used in upholstery padding, sacking and horticulture.

7. White coir, harvested from unripe coconuts, is used for making finer brushes, string, rope and fishing nets.

8. It has the advantage of not sinking, so can be used in long lengths in deep water without the added weight dragging down boats and buoys.

9. Coco peat has high cellulose and lignin content.

10. Coco peat which differ from coco coir is acidic with pH range of 5.5 to 6.5, which is slightly too acidic for some plants, but many popular plants can tolerate this pH range.

11. Coconut fiber (CF) has low thermal conductivity, is very tough, ductile, durable, renewable and inexpensive.

12. It was observed in an experimental study that by partially replacing 2% of cement with CF, the compressive strength of the concrete is increased.

STRUCTURE OF COCONUT COIR (FORMS IN WHICH COIR COIR FIBRE CAN APPEAR)

Coir fibres are found between the hard, internal shell and the outer coat of a coconut. The individual fibre cells are narrow and hollow, with thick walls made of cellulose. They are pale when immature, but later become hardened and yellowed as a layer of lignin is deposited on their walls.
Each cell that make up a fiber is about 1 mm (0.04 in) long and 10 to 20 μm (0.0004 to 0.0008 in) in diameter. Fibres are typically 10 to 30 centimetres (4 to 12 in) long.

The coir fibre can be Segregated into:

a. COIR
Coir must not be confused with coir pith, which is the powdery and spongy material resulting from the processing of the coir fibre.
b. COIR FIBRE
Coir fibre is locally named ‘coprah’ in some countries, adding to confusion.
c. PITH
Pith is chemically similar to coir, but contains much shorter fibers.
d. COCO PEAT
The name coco peat may refer either to coir or the pith or a mixture, as both have good water-retaining properties as a substitute for peat.

TYPES OF COCO COIR
Purchased coconut coir product has a combination of its three types of the coconut coir: the fiber, the pith (or coconut peat), or the coco chips. This product is a wonderful growing medium with specific benefits.

1. COCO PITH OR COCO PEAT: It is so called “coco peat” because it is the fresh coco fibre somewhat like what peat is to peat moss, although it is not true peat. It is made of finely ground coconut or peat moss.
The “peat” of coconut coir, pith looks like finely ground coconut or peat moss. It is so small and absorbent that if it is solely used as growing medium might result in drowning out the roots from the plants.
It needs proper ageing before use as it can let out salts that will kill the plant if care is not taken. It is usually shipped in the form of compressed bales, briquettes, slabs or discs, the end user usually expands and aerates the compressed coco peat by the addition of water. A single kilogramme of dry coco peat will expand to 15 litres of moist coco peat.
When coco peat is not fully decomposed especially those shipped on arrival, they will use up the available nitrogen in them. As it does so (known as drawdown), it competes with the plant if there is not enough nitrogen in it. This is called nitrogen robbery. It can cause nitrogen deficiency in the plants. Poorly sourced coco fibre can have excess salts in it and needs washing. It holds water well and holds around 1,000 times more air than soil.

2. COCO FIBER: The fiber can improve airflow but it is not very absorbent. Coconut fiber adds air pockets into the medium. It’s not very absorbent, which is good because the growing media needs air pockets in order to provide oxygen to the root zone. Coconut fibers do break down rather quickly, meaning the air pockets they create will also decrease over time. In addition, adding slow release fertilizers or organic fertilizers are highly advised when growing with coco fibre.

3. COCO CHIPS: This is a hybrid between coconut peat and coconut fiber. Coconut chips are basically a natural type of expanded clay pellet. They are made from plant matter instead of clay and are best thought of as a hybrid between coco peat and coco fiber. They are large enough to create air pockets but also absorb water, making plants not to dehydrate completely.

3. BRISTLE COIR
Bristle coir is the longest variety of coir fibre. It is manufactured from retted coconut husks through a process called defibering. The coir fibre thus extracted is then combed using steel combs to make the fibre clean and to remove short fibres. Bristle coir fibre is used as bristles in brushes for domestic and industrial applications.
When using coconut coir in the garden as growing medium, these three types ( coco chips, fiber and peat ), must be in the right mixture as a single product for best results.

VARIETIES OF COIR
There are two varieties of fibers that make up coir
Brown and white.

BROWN COIR
Brown coir harvested from fully ripened coconuts is thick, strong and has high abrasion resistance. It is typically used in mats, brushes and sacking. Mature brown coir fibres contain more lignin and less cellulose than fibres from flax and cotton. They are stronger but less flexible.
Brown coir is produced when fibrous husks are soaked in pits or in nets in a slow-moving body of water to swell and soften the fibres. The long bristle fibres are separated from the shorter mattress fibres underneath the skin of the nut, a process known as wet-milling.
The mattress fibres are sifted to remove dirt and other rubbish, dried in the sun and packed into bales. Some mattress fibre is allowed to retain more moisture so it retains its elasticity for twisted fibre production. The coir fibre is elastic enough to twist without breaking and it holds a curl as though permanently waved. Twisting is done by simply making a rope of the hank of fibre and twisting it using a machine or by hand.
The longer bristle fibre is then washed in clean water and then dried before being tied into bundles or hanks. It may then be cleaned and ‘hackled’ by steel combs to straighten the fibres and remove any shorter fibre pieces. Coir bristle fibre can also be bleached and dyed to obtain hanks of different colours.

WHITE COIR
White coir fibres are harvested from coconuts before they are ripe. They are white or light brown in colour and are smoother and finer, but also weaker. They are far more flexible but much less strong. They are generally spun to make yarn used in mats or rope.
The coir fibre is relatively waterproof, and is one of the few natural fibres resistant to damage by saltwater. Fresh water is used to process brown coir, while seawater and fresh water are both used in the production of white coir.
Almost all of the coconut coir used for hydroponics is brown coir, as it is processed even more after initial harvesting.
To produce white coir, the immature husks are suspended in a river or water-filled pit for up to ten months. During this time, micro-organisms break down the plant tissues surrounding the fibres to loosen them ( a process known as retting). The segments of the husk are then beaten with iron rods to separate out the long fibres which are subsequently dried and cleaned. Cleaned fibre is ready for spinning into yarn using a simple one-handed system or a spinning wheel.

SIGNIFICANCE OF COCO COIR

1. It is used in gardening, as a bedding material for pets, and in manufacturing. 

2. Coco coir is a growing medium that can be used in potting mixes, soil amendments, and hydroponic systems. 

3. It helps soil retain moisture and improves aeration. 

4. Pet bedding: Coco coir can be used in worm bins, vivarium substrates, and as a natural bed for pets. 

5. Manufacturing: Coco coir is used in the production of floor mats, doormats, brushes, and mattresses.

6. It is used in Cordage, packaging, bedding, flooring, and others

7. It is used for making coir rope especially in Kerala, India. The coir rope is used for connecting all parts of an outrigger canoe used at Sonsorol and Palau.

8. A small amount is also made into twine.

9. Pads of curled brown coir fibre, made by needle-felting (a machine technique that mats the fibres together), are shaped and cut to fill mattresses and for use in erosion control on river banks and hillsides.

10. A major proportion of brown coir pads are sprayed with rubber latex which bonds the fibres together (rubberised coir) to be used as upholstery padding for the automobile industry in Europe. The material is also used for packaging.

11. White coir is used for making fishing nets due to its strong resistance to saltwater.

12. In agriculture and horticulture, coir is used as an organic and decorative component in soil and potting mixes.

13. Coco coir has being an alternative to the use of other grow media. There has being an increasing concern regarding the sustainability of producing sphagnum (peat moss) and peat from peatlands, therefore, usage of alternative substrates like coco coir has been a substitute.

14. Coir is used to deter snails from delicate plantings, and also it is used as growing medium in intensive glasshouse (greenhouse) horticulture.

15. Coir is used in some hydroponic growing systems as an inert substrate medium.
It is also used as a substrate to grow mushrooms.

16. Coir can be used as a terrarium substrate for reptiles or arachnids.

17. Coir fibre pith or coir dust can hold large quantities of water, just like a sponge. It is used as a replacement for traditional peat in soil mixtures, or, as a soil-less substrate for plant cultivation.

18. Coir waste from coir fibre industries is washed, heat-treated, screened and graded before being processed into coco peat products of various granularity and denseness, which are then used for horticultural and agricultural applications and as industrial absorbent.

19. Coco peat is used as a soil conditioner. Due to low levels of nutrients in its composition, coco peat is usually not the sole component in the medium used to grow plants. When plants are grown exclusively in coco peat, it is important to add nutrients according to the specific plants’ needs. Coco peat from Philippines, Sri Lanka and India contains several macro- and micro-plant nutrients, including substantial quantities of potassium. This extra potassium can interfere with magnesium availability. Adding extra magnesium through the addition of magnesium sulphates can correct this issue.

20. Aeration and Water Retention: Aeration and water retention are some of the most impressive qualities of coco coir. By combining these important characteristics, coco coir has taken the hydroponics industry by storm.
When used in a hydroponics setup, there is no need to about substrate drying out between cycles.

21. Coco coir balances water absorption capabilities with amazing breathability. Coco coir allows air to penetrate deep into the root zone of plants. In turn, this breathability helps reduce the chance for diseases like root rot, while also supporting overall plant growth.

22. By mixing coco coir with amendments like earthworm castings, nutrients are added to the otherwise raw, inert substrate. The idea behind coco coir mixes is to keep the water retention and aeration qualities of the substrate, while complementing it with ingredients found in soil.

23. It can be used on its own or in a blend and it is a highly significant growing media. Hydroponic growers love coco coir because it gives them precision control over important factors like pH, PPM, and EC.

24. coconut coir can be used as a substitute for peat because it is free of bacteria and most fungal spores, and is sustainably produced without the environmental damage caused by peat mining.

25. Coco coir can be mixed with sand, compost and fertilizer to make good quality potting soil.

26. Coco coir has a high superior absorption capabilities compared to other products made of clay, silica and diatomaceous earth-based absorbents. Dry coconut coir pith is an oil and fluid absorbent. For example, In the 2024 Manila Bay oil spill, the DILG Bataan appealed for hay, hair and coconut coir pith (husk) to process into oil booms as absorbent for the Philippine Coast Guard’s cleanup operations.

27. Animal bedding: Coconut coir pith is also used as a bedding in litter boxes, animal farms and pet houses to absorb animal waste.

28. Coconut coir is biodegradable. Home growers and commercial producers alike can use large amounts of coco coir without concern for how to dispose it after use. It can be composted after use or even burnt.

29. Biocontrol: Trichoderma coir pith cake (TCPC), when prepared has successfully being used for control of plant diseases. The dry product TCPC has a long shelf life.

30. Coir can contain beneficial life-forms. Coconut coir from Mexico has been found to contain large numbers of colonies of the beneficial fungus Aspergillus terreus, which acts as a biological control against plant pathogenic fungi.
Trichoderma is a naturally occurring fungus in coco peat; it works in symbiosis with plant roots to protect them from pathogenic fungi such as Pythium.

31. Coir fiber is rarely used as a potting material, except for orchids, and does not need buffering. It has a very low cation-exchange capacity (CEC) capacity, hence not retaining salts.

PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING COIR
Coco fibre can be re-used up to three times with little loss of yield. Coco fibre from diseased plants should not be re-used unless sterilization is thoroughly done. Many sources of coir however are heavily contaminated with pathogenic fungi. Other risks associated with using coco coir include: high salt content, nutrient deficiencies (particularly calcium and magnesium), improper processing leading to inconsistent quality, and the need for careful pH management etc, all of which can negatively impact plant growth if not properly addressed by rinsing, buffering, and using appropriate nutrient solutions. This makes the choice of the source to be important.
The following safety guide should be known before using or purchasing coco coir:

1. Coir is an allergen, as well as the latex and other materials used frequently in the treatment of coir. Coconut coir is generally hypoallergenic and safe for people with allergies or sensitivities. It contains allergens such as Coc n 1, Coc n 2, and Coc n 4 proteins. Also, coconut-derived products like cocamide sulfate, cocamide DEA, and CDEA can cause contact dermatitis. Some of the
symptoms of a coconut allergy include hives, itching, nausea, skin rash, dizziness, coughing, diarrhea, sneezing, and swelling in the throat.

2. BIOSECURITY RISKS: Coco fibre can harbor organisms that pose a threat to the biosecurity of countries into which it is imported. For example, coco peat has been imported into New Zealand since about 1989 with a marked increase since 2004. By 2009 a total of 25 new weed species have been found in imported coco peat. The regulations relating to importing coco peat into New Zealand have been amended to improve the biosecurity measures.

3. SALT BUILD-UP: Unwashed coco coir can contain high levels of natural salts, which can harm plant roots if not properly leached out before use.

4. PATHOGEN CONTAMINATION:
Coco coir can potentially harbor harmful bacteria and fungi if not sourced from a reputable supplier and properly processed.

5. NUTRIENT IMBALANCES:
Coco coir naturally binds certain nutrients like calcium and magnesium, making it necessary to supplement with these elements when growing in this medium.

6. QUALITY INCONSISTENCY:
Different batches of coco coir can vary in quality, including salt levels and fiber structure, which can affect plant growth.

7. pH FLUCTUATIONS: Coco coir can be prone to pH changes, requiring careful monitoring and adjustment with appropriate buffers.

8. ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS: Water used for cleaning coco piths may contain high level of sodium, potassium, and physical contaminants that can have a harmful affect on surface water, groundwater, and soil. Also, as a renewable resource, the production of coco coir can sometimes involve unsustainable practices like water pollution and labor exploitation.

TREATMENTS AND STERILIZATION OF COCO COIR

Coco coir can be sterilized  using heat, hydrogen peroxide, or quaternary ammonium salts. Sterilization is important to kill pathogens and weed seeds that can harm plant growth. 

1. Coco peat may be sterilized to remove potential pathogens and weeds along with beneficial life. This may be done to remove contaminants in fresh material or to reuse old coir. Both heat (boiling or baking) and chemical means can be used.
Also, coir can becomes infected by patogens after storage. After the coir is separated from the coconuts, and stored in piles for few years, The coir will be at risk of pathogens infestion due to the natural pH of the coco coir. Most producers that experience this will chemically sterilize the coir so it’s ready for use. This also has its risks, as it can prematurely break down the fibers and peat.
Therefore, the following precautions should be adhered to:
a. Avoid situations that are conducive to pathogen growth
b .Have a dedicated system to control how the coconut coir ages
c. Rinse and wash the coir to flush out salts
d. Create the right blend of pith, fibers, and chips
e. Package and store their product correctly

2. Coir can also be pasteurised with boiling water. Coir mixed with vermiculite should be pasteurised with boiling water to kill pathogens and weed seeds especially in cases where the growing medium is to be used for mushroom production. After the coir/vermiculite mix has cooled to room temperature, it should be placed in a larger container. If the media is for mushroom production for example, spawn jars should be prepared, using substrates such as rye grains or wild bird seed, added to the media.

3. CALCIUM BUFFERING SOLUTION TREATMENT:
Because coir pith is high in sodium and potassium, it is treated before use as a growth medium for plants or fungi by soaking in a calcium buffering solution. Most coir sold for growing purposes is said to be pre-treated. Once any remaining salts have been leached out of the coir pith, it and the cocochips become suitable substrates for cultivating fungi. Coir is naturally rich in potassium, which can lead to magnesium and calcium deficiencies in soilless horticultural media.

LIMITATION OF COCO COIR

1. Coconut coir is inert, meaning it has no nutrients. Eventhough it looks like soil, it still lack nutrient. It can be used as a soil amendment but not alone as hydroponic growth substrate. There is need to add nutrients to it and control the pH when using as a grow media.

2. It needs rehydration. It is usually produced dry and shipped in dry condition. To rehydrate it, more work, labourers etc are required before use.

3. Mixes can be expensive. Coconut fiber soil mixes are expensive and annoying to work with compared to coconut coir mixes. This saves a lot of time but is pretty expensive.

HOW TO USE
To use coco coir, soak the brick in water and watch it expand. Once the entire brick has crumbled, the coir is ready to use. 

STORAGE
Store coco coir in a cool, dry place and avoid exposing it to moisture or direct sunlight. 

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Perlite, also known as “volcanic popcorn”, is a crop grow media made from volcanic glass. It is a naturally occurring mineral that exists as a type of volcanic glass, created when the volcanic obsidian glass gets saturated with water over a long time.
It can be called an  amorphous volcanic glass which is dark black or grey in colour. Amorphous means that it does not have any definite shape or structure, unlike a crystal. It is pretty heavy and dense in its natural form with relatively high water content, typically formed by the  hydration  of  obsidian. It has the unusual property of expanding when heated sufficiently. It is an industrial mineral, suitable “as ceramic flux to lower the  sintering  temperature”, and a commercial product useful for its low density after processing. It is a nonrenewable resource. The major producers are Greece, US, Turkey, and Japan.
Perlite can be Organic and at thesame time inorganic mineral. This is based on different perspectives.
From a chemistry perspective, organic compounds are those that contain carbon. Perlite does not contain carbon, so it is an inorganic mineral.
In the context of using it as a grow media, like in organic farming, the meaning or the word “organic” is different. It means materials that are naturally extracted from the earth and does not undergo significant chemical processing or does not contain chemicals.
This gives reasons why it is allowed by the National Organic Standards Board for use in certified organic agriculture. In the context of this, perlite is a safe “organic” additive used for farming.

PROPERTIES OF PERLITE

1. Perlite softens when it reaches temperatures of 850–900 °C (1,560–1,650 °F).

2. When water is applied to it, the water trapped in the structure of the material vaporises and escapes, and this causes the expansion of the material to 7–16 times its original volume. The expanded material is a brilliant white, due to the reflectivity of the trapped bubbles.

3. Unexpanded (“raw”) perlite has a bulk density of around 1100 kg/m3 (1.1 g/cm3), while typical expanded perlite has a bulk density of about 30–150 kg/m3 (0.03–0.150 g/cm3).

4. Typical analysis of perlite include:
70–75% silicon dioxide: SiO2, 12–15% aluminium oxide: Al2O3, 3–4% sodium oxide: Na2O, 3–5% potassium oxide: K2O, 0.5-2% iron oxide: Fe2O3, 0.2–0.7% magnesium oxide: MgO, 0.5- 1.5% calcium oxide: CaO and 3–5% loss on ignition (chemical / combined water)

5. Perlite can be safely disposed of through existing sewage systems, although some pool operators choose to separate the perlite using settling tanks or screening systems to be disposed of separately.

6. It has a thermal and mechanical stability

7. It is non-toxicity

8. It is highly resistance against microbial attacks and organic solvents

9. It is highly permeable and it has low water retention property

10. It can helps prevent soil compaction.
CHARACTERIATICS OF PERLITE
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Perlite is encompased with enclosed air pockets, expanded perlite is very lightweight with a particle and BD of 0.7 and 0.1 g/cm3, respectively.

2. It is very porous and can hold 3–4 times its weight in water.

3. Perlite has very low bulk density ( BD). It is probably the most used substrate for green roofs , however, one has to consider the high weight of the moist substrate.

4. Perlite is probably a medium ingredient that has the highest air-filled porosity compared to other grow media.

5. Perlite exist in different fraction. These fractions have different water retaining capacity. For example, water retained at −10 kPa is much higher for the coarse fraction (0.5–1.0 mm diameter) than for the fine fraction (0.25–0.50 mm diameter) of expanded perlite. This difference in water holding capacity between the coarse and fine fractions indicates that most of the water is held by the coarse particles in internal pores. However, it is not explained by the volume of internal porosity alone. The decrease in water content with decreasing matric potential is moderate relative to sand and stone wool.

6. Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) is a measure of how easily water can pass through saturated grow media. It depends on particle diameter. The saturated hydraulic conductivity of perlite typically ranges between 0.1 to 1 cm/min depending on the particle size, with coarser perlite having a higher conductivity than finer perlite. For example, coarse perlite (1-7.5mm) can have a saturated hydraulic conductivity around 1 cm/min while fine perlite (0-1mm) may be closer to 0.01 cm/min. For commercial perlite of 0–4 mm diameter with 50% of the particles smaller than 0.5 mm, saturated hydraulic conductivity was 0.3 cm/min . In a study, a reduction of two orders of magnitude in the hydraulic conductivity was obtained as the matric potential decreased from 0 to −30 cm H2O. This change is moderate when compared to sand.

7. Due to perlite’s excellent physical characteristics, it is frequently used as a component in mixtures based on organic substrates such as compost. By this, the positive biological features of such media can be maintained for a relatively long period, while preventing compaction.

8. Perlite is physically stable and retains its shape even when pressed into the soil.

9. It is incredibly porous and contains pockets of space inside for air

10. It can retain some amount of water while allowing the rest to drain away

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Perlite is neutral with a pH of 7.0–7.5, but it has no buffering capacity and contains no mineral nutrients.

2. The inert nature and neutrality of perlite make it a favorable medium for assessing the usefulness of various forms and levels of nutrients.

3. When the pH is low, there is a risk of toxic Al release into the solution.

4. chemical composition of perlite:
70-75% silicon dioxide
Aluminum oxide
Sodium oxide
Potassium oxide
Iron oxide
Magnesium oxide
Calcium oxide
3-5% Water

5. It contains no toxic chemicals and is made from naturally occurring compounds found in soil

SOURCES AND PRODUCTION
Perlite is a non-renewable resource. The world reserves of perlite are estimated at 700 million tonnes.
Perlite world production, led by China, Turkey, Greece, USA, Armenia and Hungary, summed up to 4.6 million tonnes in 2018. The confirmed resources of perlite existing in Armenia for example, amount to about 150 million m3, whereas the total amount of projected resources reaches up to 3 billion m3. Considering the specific density of perlite with 1.1 ton/m3, the confirmed reserves in Armenia amount to 165 million tons.
Other reported reserves include: Greece – 120 million tonnes, Turkey, USA and Hungary – about 49-57 million tonnes.
Perlite is one of the several components often found in soilless growing material. It is refered to as a volcanic popcorn.” ( literal description). It is rich in water, it pops when heated to very high temperatures, exactly like popcorn. It is an ultra-lightweight mineral, absorbent, and porous. This volcanic material is processed into perlite balls by crushing natural perlite glass and then baking them in industrial ovens. The crushed volcanic glass is then run through a screen and then heated quickly to a super high temperature of 900°C (around 1650°F). The mineral structure is softened by the heat, allowing the water trapped inside to expand into steam in a bid to escape. This result to a material that is sterile, retains up to 3-4 times its weight in water and is extremely lightweight. When perlite is heated, it pops rather like popcorn until it looks a bit like white polystyrene. 
This product formed during the process of formation leads to expansion of the mineral. It is not usual for perlite pieces to expand between 7 and 16 times their original size and volume, creating those lightweight faux-styrofoam balls.
The foamy balls have a lot of porous openings inside them and are clean, sterile and generally stable. It can hold its shape with ease in the soil without crumbling.

TYPES AND GRADES OF PERLITE
Perlite manufactured for gardening and horticulture purposes are produced in various grades, the most common being 0–2.0 and 1.5–3.0 mm in diameter. The various grades differ in their physical characteristics.
There are three types of graded depending on the size of the individual particles:

1. Coarse Perlite
This has the highest porosity and draining capabilities. It is best suited for succulent plants and orchids. It is also least affected by winds. But it does not work its way up to the topsoil very easily.

2. Medium Grade Perlite
This straddles the middle ground regarding aeration and draining. It is best suited for potted seeds and seedlings.

3. Fine Perlite
This is the lightest grade, best suited for starting seeds and root cuttings. Fine particles of perlite can also be scattered lightly on top of the soil in gardens and lawns.

USES OF PERLITE

1. CONSTRUCTION AND MANUFACTURING:
In the construction and manufacturing fields, due to its lightweight, it is used as plasters, concrete and mortar,  insulation  and ceiling tiles.

2. It may also be used to build composite materials that are sandwich-structured or to create syntactic foam.

3. Perlite filters are fairly common in filtering  beer  before it is bottled.

4. Small quantities of perlite are also used in  foundries,  cryogenic insulation, and ceramics (as a clay additive).

5.  It is also used by the explosives industry.

6. AQUATIC FILTRATION: Perlite is currently used in commercial pool filtration technology, as a replacement to diatomaceous earth filters. Perlite is an excellent filtration aid and is used extensively as an alternative to diatomaceous earth. The popularity of perlite usage as a filter medium is growing considerably worldwide. Several products exist in the market to provide perlite based filtration. Several perlite filters and perlite media have met NSF-50 approval (Aquify PMF Series and AquaPerl), which standardizes water quality and technology safety and performance.

7. BIOTECHNOLOGY: Perlite is widely used in biotechnological applications. It was found to be an excellent support for immobilization of biocatalysts such as enzymes for bioremediation and sensing applications due to its thermal and mechanical stability, non-toxicity, and high resistance against microbial attacks and organic solvents,

8. AGRICULTURE:
In horticulture, perlite can be used as a soil amendment or alone as a medium for  hydroponics or for starting  cuttings. When used as an amendment, it has high permeability and low water retention and helps prevent  soil compaction.

9. COSMETICS: Perlite is used in cosmetics as an absorbent and mechanical exfoliant.

9. SUBSTITUTES: Perlite can be replaced for all of its uses. its Substitutes include:
a. Diatomite, used for filter-aids
b. Expanded clay, an alternative lightweight filler for building materials
c. Shale, Pumice, Slag
d. Vermiculite : many expanders of perlite are also exfoliating vermiculite and belong to both trade associations

10. Perlite is added to soil mediums for its water retention but more importantly for its ability to aerate soils due to its high porosity level.

11. AERATION: Plant cells need oxygen, whether Arial or underground. It is used by green parts of plant during the process of photosynthesis.
While the underground parts like the root system has to absorb oxygen from the soil. Thus, use of perlite can help aerate the soil and growth of strong root systems. It contains great air pockets meaning that perlite is great for root systems development. When the soil gets packed down, the air pockets are lost. But since perlite is a harder mineral, it retains its shape, keeping those air pockets around for the roots.

12. DRAINING: Water is an important commodity needed for survival. For plants, excess water in the soil is detrimental and can lead to drowning and death of the plant. The plant root system becomes starved of oxygen, causing eventual death. Therefore, proper drainage is required to allow empty air spaces to remain in the soil.
Adding perlite to the soil improves its drainage capabilities, as it has excellent filtering and water draining capabilities. The presence of all those pores allows most of the excess water to drain off.

13. FOR ROOT CUTTINGS: Perlite encourages root growth much better than just plain water. Seeds or cuttings can be germinated by placing them in an air-filled Ziploc bag contained moistened perlite.
It also stimulates root growth, and prevents drowning by helping drain excess water away from the cuttings. It can be used with rooting compounds.

14. STANDALONE GROWING MEDIA: Perlite is a decent option in some instances as a hydroponic medium. But it is not suitable for high water settings, like deep water culture, or ebb and flow systems.

15. In mixture with other growing media. Perlite is commonly mixed with vermiculite in equal amounts (50-50). This greatly solves the water-retaining issue of Perlite while improving the water-holding capacity of vermiculite, making it able to use in the water-rich systems.

STERILIZATION, REUSE, AND WASTE DISPOSAL
Perlite is a stable, sterile, inert materia produced at very high temperatures. Chemically, it can last for several years and its stability is not much affected by acidity or microorganisms.
After use, perlite can be recycled. This recycling process does not cause any negative environmental effect. When used perlite is reused without sterilization or treatment as a grow media, this poses a severe risky of media compaction, salt buildup, and pest contamination.

Also, it is costly to replace used perlite with new media as this increases cost of production and at thesame time farmers might not recoup back the expense from the sale of produce derived from the use of perlite.
To overcome this problems, farmers can use sterilization, solarization and heat treatment method so as to reuse the product. This comes with several advantages over use of new perlites
STEAM STERILIZATION

Perlite can be steam sterilized before Reuse as grow media so as to safeguard against pathogen contamination. This type of treatment requires the use of expensive steam generators. A disadvantage of this method is that it may not be adequate to restore perlite’s loose structure and to reduce accumulated salt content of the perlite.
In a reseach carried out to determine the effect of cleaned and disinfected used perlite over new perlite on the growth of tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum ), it was diacovered that the cleaned and disinfected used perlite is more economical to use than the new perlite and also, there was no negative effect on yield of the crop.

HOT WATER TREATMENT
In a research carried out by Hanna in 2005, the research was carried out for 8 years on the effect of heat treatment of perlite to produce tomatoes in bags, Hanna used recycled perlite and treated it with hot water (13.25 L water/18.9 L perlite) at temperatures reaching 93.3°C to leach excess salts and disinfect the medium. These perlites were used twice within a year for commercial tomato production in bag (18.9 L) culture. After harvesting, he separated the roots of the previous crops from the whole plant and discovered that the treatment raised the media temperatures above limits, resulting in the killing of several fungi and nematodes and significantly reduced salt contents (Electrical Conductivity (EC), NO3–N, and K were reduced by 43%, 50%, and 47%, respectively) with no noticeable change in physical properties [i.e., particle size distribution (PSD)] over the 8 years.
Other studies carried out in 2008 and 2016 reveals that
perlite has a natural plasticity property making it prone to mechanical compression and disintegration. This contrast the result of Hannas on the physical properties of perlite.
From these researches, it can be deduced that after cleaning and disinfecting used perlite, recycling it saves 56% of the cost to replace it with new media. Also, higher produce yield with heavier tomato fruit were realised than with new perlite. Therefore, it can be concluded that the observed yield from the recycled perlite was attributed to the collective effect of salt reduction, media disinfection, and the presence of an optimum level of nutrients. It often takes time to build up nutrients to an optimum level in new perlite. Thus, used perlite can be cleaned and disinfected and recycled for many years due to it’s non organic nature and physical and chemical stability.
Another study had proven that recycled perlite and peat–perlite mix were more suppressive against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radicis lycopersici than the newly unused media. Another efficient disinfecting method for perlite is by solarization of the growing bags within the greenhouse.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING PERLITE

1. Perlite contains silicon dioxide, therefore, goggles and silica filtering masks are recommended when handling large quantities.

2. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration  (OSHA) of USA has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for perlite exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.

3. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.

4. Perlite Toxic: Perlite is a naturally formed material and, if excess quantities are used and proper ventilation is not provided, it will be toxic.

5. Perlite and vermiculite are excessively dusty and inhalation of this dust can cause irritation in the respiratory tract or skin irritation. So, in an abundance of caution, users should wear gloves and a mask.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PERLITE AND OTHER GROW MEDIA

PERLITE VS. VERMICULITE

There are several differences between perlite and vermiculite. Both perlite and vermiculite can be found in soilless or potting mediums and both come in various grades but which is better and really depends on specific growing needs. The most distinct difference is their water retention capability. Perlite may retain water 3-4 times its weight, but vermiculite absorbs up to 16 times its weight.
Vermiculite and perlite are both volcanic material but unlike perlite, it contains minerals such as magnesium, iron, and aluminum.  Vermiculite also has traces of minerals that can be beneficial to plants but not in such an amount that supplemental nutrients will not be necessary. 
As a farmer, if water retention is the goal for selection, vermiculite is more preferred. But if better aeration and drainage are most important, perlite is the best choice.

PERLITE VS. STONEWOOL

Perlite is a lightweight, volcanic glass material that primarily functions to improve drainage and aeration in a growing medium by adding air pockets, while stone wool is a fibrous material made from melted rock, offering a more balanced combination of water retention and aeration, often used as a standalone growing substrate for plants without needing additional amendments like perlite. Essentially, perlite is typically used as an additive to enhance existing soil, while stone wool can be used on its own as a complete growing medium. 
Perlite is a naturally occurring volcanic glass, while stone wool is manufactured from melted rock spun into fibers.  Perlite has a granular, popcorn-like texture with large air pockets, whereas stone wool has a fibrous, web-like structure. 
In addition, perlite is often mixed with other potting mediums like soil or coco coir to enhance their drainage, while stone wool is typically used as a complete growing medium on its own, particularly in hydroponic systems. 

PERLITE VS. PEAT
Perlite and peat moss are both used in potting mixes and have similar physical properties. They differ in the following ways:
Perlite is produced from
Volcanic glass that expands when heated. The production is usually uniform while peat moss is an organic material that decays over time. The production varies. Perlite can
hold 3–4 times its weight in water while peat moss has
high moisture content
Perlite is an important grow media that helps with drainage and loosening heavy soil, while peat moss can improve plant growth and nutrient uptake

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Plant growth media, also known as a substrate or potting mix, is a material that supports plant growth by providing water, nutrients, air, and structure. They include: Soil, Vermiculite, Rock wool, Perlite, Peat moss,  Bark, Coir, Clay pellets, and Expanded clay etc. 
The type of growing media used depends on the environment and the specific needs of the plants being grown. 
Rockwool also known as  stone or mineral wools, is a lightweight hydroponic substrate made from spun molten basaltic rock. It is a popular and efficient growing medium for various crops, including tomatoes, peppers, melons, cucumbers,  strawberries, herbs and cut flowers and lettuce, in commercial and smaller hydroponic setups.
It is formed by spinning molten basaltic rock into fine fibers, which are then formed into cubes, blocks, slabs, or granules.
It is a natural product due to the fact that it originates from rock.
Hydroponics: Rockwool is a popular soilless growing medium used in hydroponics, a method of growing plants without soil.

ORIGIN OF  ROCK WOOL

Stone wool was discovered on the islands of Hawaii around the beginning of the nineteenth century and occurs as a natural byproduct of volcanic activity. Grodan invented and debuted stone wool as a growing media in 1969.

The use of rock wool originally started as a thermal insulation material in the construction industry, it is lightweight but highly aerated. It helps keep heat inside buildings,  easy to handle, cut and install. Towards the end of the 1960’s trials were carried out in Denmark to test the possibility of using stone wool as a substrate for hydroponic plants and since then, rock wool has being seen as a growing media for continious development and improvement.

Today, Rock wool is used by both large scale commercial producers and small scale crop growers.  Apart from the selection of different sized rock wool cubes, blocks and plugs for propagation, growing slabs and granulated rock wool exist for the production of longer term crops and fruiting plants.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCK WOOL
The way in which the molten rock fibres are stacked and the density inside the rock wool product determine the properties of the growing media.
Some of its characteristics include:
1. It has high moisture holding capacity
2. It is highly porous making it to be well aerated or air filled. 3. It has good moisture gradient from the top to the base of the cube or growing slab.
4. One of the most important characteristics of rock wool is that plants are still able to extract water for growth at very low moisture tensions in the media. That means that plants can easily extract water when the rock wool is saturated from recent irrigation and when the rock wool slab has dried down considerably and lost as much as 70-80% of its moisture content, levels which in other growing media would cause severe wilting in the crop.
5. The moisture gradient between the top and base of a rock wool growing slab, cube or block is also one of the important characteristics of the product. After irrigation,  the base of the rock wool is always saturated with plenty of moisture, while the upper layers of the rock wool are held in a drier condition and hence have access to plenty of aeration and oxygen for root uptake and respiration. It is this moisture gradient from top to bottom of the rock wool material which make it such a good hydroponic substrate, but at the same time growers who are not aware of this property can make the mistake of thinking the rock wool is too dry on the surface and over irrigate the plants despite having plenty of nutrient solution held deep down in the root system.
These properties of the rock wool can easily be altered, making rock wool products available for different applications by growers. For example, the product can be designed to maintain a slightly drier root zone and helps steer crops away from overly vegetative growth, while another may be designed for ultra quick root growth and development. This allows growers to choose the rock wool product which best suits their system, crop, irrigation strategy and environment to maximise plant growth and development.
6. Irrigation of rock wool is a little different to other solid substrates because of the way the material is manufactured to have just the right degree of moisture gradient and because it does give a limited root zone for plants that eventually grow fairly large. For this reason, most rock wool products are best irrigated with short, frequent applications of nutrient solution, with just enough at each irrigation for the rock wool to reach `field capacity’.
Field capacity is a term which means the substrate has drained fully but is still holding a good level of moisture for the plant roots to access until the next irrigation. At each irrigation, there should be some drainage from the rock wool material, however this should not be excessive. Having around 10-35% of the nutrient solution fed to the plants drain from the rock wool as each irrigation is considered optimal. This amount of drainage of solution flushes fresh nutrient solution right through the rock wool slab and usually keeps the EC in the slab fairly stable.
7. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (EC) management: Rock wool has very low electrical conductivity, meaning it is considered a poor conductor of electricity due to its primarily fibrous, porous structure composed of volcanic rock fibers, making it a good insulator in electrical applications. However, its conductivity can slightly increase depending on factors like moisture content and the presence of conductive additives.
Rock wool electrical conductivity directly increases with moisture content, meaning that as the rock wool absorbs more moisture, its electrical conductivity also increases. This means that, the higher the electrical conductivity, the greater the moisture content within the rock wool material.
It is important to check the rock wool EC at the root zone  just as it is with any other substrate. Rock wool does not contain any naturally occurring minerals or salts which may influence EC levels. The EC of the nutrient solution inside the growing substrate changes as plants extract different ratios of water and nutrients from the root zone. Therefore, it is important to careful monitor and control  both the EC and pH in the nutrient solution in recirculating rock wool systems  just as it is important with other growing media.
Under warmer growing conditions, plants can extract high levels of water from a nutrient solution, thus increasing the EC rapidly and requiring the addition of greater amounts of top-up water in the nutrient reservoir. Under cooler and/or humid conditions, the EC may drop as plants extract nutrients but do not require as much water, making frequent checks and adjustment of EC levels important for maintaining growth control.
8.  Rockwool is stable and has no adverse environmental impacts. The product can typically be disposed of in an ordinary landfill (local regulations may apply).
9. Stone wool growing media can be used for cultivation of plants in Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA). It has neutral pH and has air pockets that make it suitable for hydroponics. These air pockets supply  oxygen and moisture to plant root zone. This type of soilless growing media is ideally suited to indoor cultivation, from vegetables and floriculture to medicinal crops.

BENEFITS OF USING ROCKWOOL
1. LIGHTWEIGHT AND ABSORBENT:
Rockwool is lightweight, making it easy to handle and highly absorbent, allowing it to hold a significant amount of water and nutrients.
2. EFFICIENT WATER AND NUTRIENT DISTRIBUTION:
It provides uniform distribution of water and plant nutrients, ensuring plants have access to what they need.
3. CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT:
As rockwool is inert and contains no nutrients, growers have complete control over the nutrient solution provided to the plants.
4. IMPROVED ROOT ZONE TECHNOLOGY:
Rockwool’s structure promotes healthy root development and oxygenation, leading to improved plant growth.
5. VERSATILE:
It can be used for a wide variety of crops, including vegetables, fruits, herbs, and flowers.
6. COST-EFFECTIVE:
Rockwool is a relatively inexpensive and efficient hydroponic substrate.
7. pH AND EC LEVELS:
Because rockwool is inert, growers need to carefully monitor and adjust the pH and EC (electrical conductivity) of the nutrient solution, as there is no buffering capacity from the substrate itself.

8. DISPOSAL:
The disposal of mineral wool can pose environmental challenges, so proper disposal methods are crucial. It can easily be recycled into raw materials for products such as new stone wool and bricks.
9. IMPROVE ROOT ZONE: Rock wool can easily be used by smaller hydroponic growers who want to take advantage of improved root zone technology.
10. Stone wool has a unique fibre content which makes the cultivation on stone wool growing media very easy to control. The grower can administer the precise amount of water and nutrients the crops need in a very directed and controlled manner, to achieve optimal growing results. Waste becomes a thing of the past.
11. Efficient use of water and nutrients keeps yield per square metre high, and energy consumption per unit of product low.
12. Rock wool is sterile and inert and thus makes an excellent seed germination and growing medium. It is a growing medium for germinating and raising seedlings due to its high aeration and good water retention properties.
13. It has high success rates,
Sterile, affordable and easy to use.
14.  By increasing the time between irrigations and allowing the EC in the root zone to increase, the rock wool slab dry back. This pushes plants such as tomatoes into a more generative state with less leaf growth and more assimilate being directed into the fruit. A higher level of moisture maintained in the rock wool and a lower EC pushes the plants towards more vegetative growth rate. Skilful growers use these techniques in rock wool growing media to direct their crop and control leaf, flower and fruit growth at different times.
15. Rock wool, being a ‘sterile’ product (only directly after production) does not contain any naturally occurring beneficial microbial populations when first planted out, however research has shown that microbial life does develop in rock wool substrates in the same way as other more ‘organic’ mediums such as peat and coco. This build up of beneficial microbial populations however is generally slower in rock wool as there are initially limited carbon sources for the microbes to feed on.
16. As root systems develop and produce organic exudate, microbial life inside rock wool gradually build, however rock wool can be inoculated with microbial products to assist this process and help develop a healthy root zone.
In addition, the high level of oxygenation in a well managed rock wool system  helps with the establishment and multiplication of beneficial microbe populations.
17.  Rock wool, an essential rock does not decompose, fracture or break down over time, hence growers can use it for many successive crops, that is, it is reusable.
18. Stone wool is a highly suitable growing medium for Controlled Environment Agriculture, or indoor cultivation environments. This closed environment, in combination with stone wool and automated growing systems, allows for every aspect of the plants’ lighting, nutrition and irrigation to be controlled by the grower. Stone wool products are designed for precision growing and are fully compatible with the sensors and automation tools utilized in a data-driven cultivation strategy.

19. Stone wool is much less likely to be contaminated by fungi, yeasts and bacteria as well as insects and microbes that feed and live on carbon-based organic matter in coco coir and soils. Therefore enhancing crop quality.

HOW TO MAKE STONE WOOL
Rockwool is the product of molten rock which has been spun around at high heat (similar to fairy floss). The result is a light material with thousands of tiny cavities that help store water and air.
Stone wool is made from basalt, a solidified lava spewed from the innermost depths of the earth. The extracted basalt and raw stone material is re-liquefied in furnaces at a temperature of 2700°F ( 1500°C). The molten rock is injected with air and spun into a fibrous, yet light consistency resembling spun sugar. The material is treated with a hydrophilic binder to facilitate liquid absorption, which ensures even distribution of water and nutrients upon use. Next, it is congealed in a hardening kiln using hot air at > 390°F (200°C) after which it is compressed into wool packets.
The stone wool packets are then cut into a graduated series of sizes and shapes—from small-sized plugs to larger blocks and slabs, each designed for various crops and for different stages of crop production. The finished products are wrapped in a special film that blocks UV light and limits the growth of algae on the growing media surface.
The result is a clean and uniform growing medium with plenty of space for roots to grow and access moisture, nutrients and oxygen from well-distributed irrigation. Clean stone wool is designed to retain water as well as air, while also promoting healthy drainage from top to bottom – unlike soil-based media that are prone to compaction and certain soilless media that can become hydrophobic (water-repelling) if allowed to dry out.

ADVANTAGES OF ROCK WOOL
1. Rock wool has many advantages for hydroponic production: The manufacture of the rock wool fibres from molten rock and plastic wrapping of growing slabs ensures the product is sterile, and free from weed seeds, pests and pathogens.
2. High quality rock wool brands are consistent in quality and do not decompose or break down over time in the way that many other natural growing substrates do.
3. Rockwool maintains it physical properties over time and with successive crops. It
is light weight and thus easy to handle and shift into place, once fully irrigated however it becomes heavy and provides stability to the crop.
4. Rock wool comes in a convenient range of sizes from small 2-3 cm propagation plugs joined in sheets for direct sowing crops such as lettuce and other seedlings, to large cubes of over 10cm for more advanced transplants.
5. The plugs are often used for cuttings where they maintain the ideal levels of aeration and moisture for rapid root development.
6. Rock wool can be inoculated with beneficial microbes such as Trichoderma in much the same way other substrates like coco are, however more frequent applications of microbial products are recommended with rock wool substrates.
7. Most rock wool products and reliable brands do not have any major influence on the EC, pH or composition of the nutrient solution applied. Since rock wool provides no naturally occurring nutrients a well balanced nutrient product applied will give optimal growth.
8. Rockwool is manufactured to give a close to ideal level of moisture and aeration in the root zone. This helps prevent over watering and root suffocation from a lack of oxygenation.
9. Rock wool can be used for successive crops as its structure does not tend to break down rapidly with use or over time. some commercial tomato growers use good quality rock wool for as many as 6 successive crops with use of steam sterilisation to control root pathogens between plantings.
10. The products and growing slabs come ready to use, the substrate only needs to be thoroughly wetted before planting.
11. Rockwool can be monitored with a water content meter which gives accurate measurement of the water content, EC and temperature in the plant’s root zone environment. These assist with fine turning the application of nutrient solution to just the right level for each stage of growth.

DISADVANTAGES OF ROCK WOOL

1. Rockwool is bulky to transport and store, unlike coco slabs which can be highly compressed and then expanded with water before use.
2. It needs to be placed on a fully levelled surface to allow the moisture gradient inside the product to be even and prevent any saturation or overly dry patches from developing.
3. Despite being usable for more than one crop, and some recycling programs developed for used rock wool, disposal can still be a problem for many growers as rock wool does not decompose or break down over time.
4. Rockwool fibres can irritate the skin and a face mask is recommended if handling granulated rock wool or disposing of old rock wool products.
5. Rockwool contains no naturally occurring nutrients (coco often contains levels of potassium and sometimes other minerals which are used to pre condition the substrate), hence the plants are totally reliant on a well balanced and complete hydroponic nutrient solution at each stage of growth.
6. Being an inert substrate made from rock, rockwool does not contain naturally occurring growth stimulants such as humic acid, other organic compounds or naturally occurring beneficial microbes, although these can be added with the use of good quality hydroponic supplement products.
7. New or inexperienced growers need to determine the right frequency and amount of irrigation for rock wool systems as this can differ somewhat from other substrates such as perlite and coco. Therefore, to use rockwool, there is need for technical know- how.

HOW MOISTURE IS MAINTAINED IN  ROCK WOOL PRODUCTS
Standard rock wool products are highly porous, meaning they  drain freely after irrigation and contain 80% nutrient solution, 15% air pore space and 5% rock wool fibres, although these ratios differ slightly between rock wool brands and products. A typical rock wool slab, such as those used for tomatoes and other fruiting crops, contains around 9 litres of nutrient solution immediately after irrigation, despite the drainage holes allowing free drainage of excess solution.
During  irrigation of rock wool,  it should not be left sitted in the nutrient solution that makes it completely saturated from top to bottom like a sponge. It is important for users of the rock wool to allow it drain completely so that excess nutrient solution applied can be absorbed from  the slab or cube under the pull of gravity. By doing this, fresh air will be drawn into the top layers of the material, providing fresh oxygenation for the root zone.
When  rock wool are allowd to drain freely, over watering becomes more difficult.

MECHANISMS OF GROWING CROPS IN STONEWOOL 
Stone wool  cultivation system consists of plugs, blocks and slabs. The plug is used for sowing. It is the hole where the seed grows into a seedling. Then the seedling with the plug is transplanted in a block in which it is grown into a full-fledged young plant. The full-fledged young plant with block is then placed on the slab for growing to maturity and producing fruits.

USING ROCK WOOL TO RAISE SEEDLINGS
To germinate seeds in rockwool, make sure that the rockwool cubes have been fully soaked, place 2-3 seeds in the hole at the top of each rockwool cube. Make sure the seeds have been “activated” by wetting them with some water to help them germinate. Ensure that the rockwool cubes are sitting in about 1cm of water as this will help them stay hydrated. To maximise success with germination, you can use a clear glass or plastic cup/bowl/container to create a warm and humid greenhouse effect which can speed up the progress of your seeds sprouting.

USING ROCKWOOL TO  PRODUCE ROOT CUTTINGS

Cuttings can be rooted in rockwool. Prepare by soaking the rockwool cube in water, then simply cut the propagules from the parent plant (usually just below a “node” on the plant stem), and then trim some of the unecessary leaves back. Dip the cutting in rooting hormone (optional) and embed the cutting slightly in the hole at the top of the rockwool cube. Keep the cutting in bright indirect light

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN STONE WOOL AND OTHER GROWING MEDIA
The main difference between stone wool, coco coir, peat and soil growing media is that stone wool is mineral-based, not carbon-containing organic matter. It is made of natural stone, not coconut husks, bog-sourced peat moss or the composted wood byproducts found in most potting soils.
During manufacturing of stone wool, it is heated to such extreme temperatures of about 3,000°F/ 1500°C. This makes it hygienic, clean growing media free of pathogens. It is also fully compatible with hydroponic and automated growing systems, as well as automated irrigation technologies that rely on precise control unlike other substrate medium.

PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING ROCK WOOL
1. It is recommended that rock wool is steamed or at least treated with boiling water before replanting to help prevent any carry over of root disease pathogens.
2. A thorough leaching with clean water can helps remove any excess salts from the previous crop planted.
3.  Chemical disinfectants can be used to treat rock wool before use. However, care needs to be taken to completely rinse these chemicals from the material before replanting and steam or hot water can be used which is  a much safer option.
4. After use of rock wool material, it should be disposed off. Often,  growers simply dump them causing environmental pollution. However, this materials can be shred and re use as a growing mixes, or incorporate it into outdoor soils and gardens as a soil conditioner.

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The world of today is developing different technology that will help farmers increase their production, and at thesame time in the case of crops, improve soil fertility and soil health. Different sustainable farming practices have being developed which has helped reduce the carbon footprint of agricultural activities. The use of synthetic polymers such as rock wool, peat, and coir has been used over soil as a medium for plant growth and development. These materials are non-renewable, non-biodegradable, and environmentally harmful. Fortunately, a better media solution has been developed. This technology is called “Gelponics”.
Gelponics is a range of non-synthetic hydrogel formulations (granules, sheets and plugs) that control fertiliser, reduce complexity and save water – making them a suitable replacement for rock wool, peat and coir.
This non-synthetic hydrogel formulations is a sustainable growth substrate for plants. It is made from sustainable low-carbon products, and it is entirely compostable, which significantly reduces an organization’s carbon footprint. This substrate is perfect for use in vertical farming, where space is limited, and the use of traditional soil is impractical.
 Gelponics is a simplified substrate over the use of traditional soil in farming operation. The use of soil can be complex, as soil quality varies and requires careful monitoring and adjustment. But in Gelponics, the substrate is consistent, and the water and nutrient content can be easily adjusted to suit the plants’ needs. This reduces the need for extensive testing and ensures optimal growing conditions for plants.

BENEFITS OF GELPONICS
Gelponics with its nutrient delivery system also has additional benefits including:

1. RECYCLABLE: The Gelponics hydrogel product can be reused locally as a carbon-sequestering soil additive.

2. WATER-HOLDING: Gelponics has a significant water-holding capacity for precision nutrient delivery to the plant roots. The hydrogel formulation can hold water and nutrients for extended periods, which means that less water is needed to maintain healthy plant growth.

3. IMPROVES FOOD GROWTH CONDITIONS : Gelponics improved food growth conditions by increasing yield, lowering energy costs and lowering CO2 emissions as well.
 4. Gelponics is a great alternative to peat and stone wool.

5. It has environmentally friendly attributes.

6. It is 100% compostable

7. It has a low-carbon footprint.

8. It is a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative to synthetic polymers like rock wool, peat, and coir that are widely used in traditional agriculture

9. Apart from its environmental benefits, Gelponics also has practical advantages in vertical farming operations.

10. The use is highly significant, especially in regions experiencing water scarcity, as it reduces water consumption and promotes water conservation.

11. Gelponics can control the release of nutrients, ensuring that plants receive the required amount of fertilizer and reducing the risk of overfertilization.

12. It not only saves time and money, but also reduces the environmental impact of fertilizer runoff.

13. No laboratory test is required unlike soil test required to determine the nutrient status of soil before planting and fetilizer recommendation.

14. Gelponics optimises resource utilisation through quantifiable scientific metrics. It meticulously manage nutrient levels, water distribution, and crop health, 16. Gelponics ensures that every scientific variable utilized contributes to the economic viability of vertical farming. Its role in resource efficiency aligns seamlessly with the scientific principles of sustainability.

15. Gelponics is highly effective in extreme climates because of its excellent water retention properties. In hot and arid environments, it significantly reduces water loss by holding moisture at the roots, while in cooler climates, it helps to maintain the moisture balance, preventing oversaturation.
This means that the hydrogel is resilience, that is, it can adapt to different growing conditions, making it an ideal tool for consistent crop production regardless of the climate.

16. COST-EFFICIENCY: By reducing the need for frequent irrigation, Gelponics cuts down on long-term expenses.

17. Gelponics has a stand advantage over other water retaining growth media due to its advanced water-holding capacity and nutrient-release mechanism. Unlike traditional water retention tools, Gelponics absorbs and holds large amounts of water and releases moisture as plants need it, reducing both over-watering and under-watering risks.

18. It is biodegradable and designed explicitly for vertical farming and hydroponic systems, offering a precision solution that other soil additives or retention products cannot match

19. Vertical Farming: GelPonics shines in vertical farming due to its efficient use of space and water.

20. It can be used in indoor Gardening

21. GREEN ROOFS: It also works well in indoor gardens or rooftops, making it a versatile choice for urban projects.

22. COMMUNITY GARDENS: Many community gardens have adopted this technology, which has boosted their productivity while lowering water usage

ADVANTAGES OF GELPONICS

1. Made from sustainable low-carbon products, significantly reducing an organization’s carbon footprint.

2. It is entirely compostable.

3. It helps reduce waste.

4. It is a means of promoting organic fertilizer

5. Replaces environmentally harmful synthetic materials like rock wool, peat, and coir usage.

6. It can save water.

7. It control fertilizer usage.

8. It simplify the farming process

9. The hydrogel formulation holds water and nutrients for extended periods, reducing the need for constant watering and fertilization

10. It is cost effective
DISADVANTAGES OF GELPONICS

1. Requires careful monitoring of the moisture and nutrient content to ensure optimal growing conditions for plants

2. Initial cost may be higher than traditional substrates

3. Requires expertise and training to set up and operate effectively

4. Power outages can be devastating

5. Energy consumption: it require high energy costs to run lights and control humidity
Plant suitability

6. It is only suitable for specific types of plants like vegetables and not root crops like yam

7. The wrong setup could spread pests.

THREATS TO FOOD SECURITY THAT LEAD TO DEVELOPMENT OF GELPONICS
Agricultural causes of food insecurity include land degradation, water scarcity, drought, conflicts, tradition method of faming and climate change etc. These issues can reduce the amount of food that can be produced to meet the needs of a country’s populace. Land degradation due to overmining of nutrients, water scarcity due to weather condition like drought and even traditional farming methods where soil is used for farming, all result in low yield and profitability.
In the United Kingdom alone, only 5% of water use happens at home, with 5% used by businesses to create products and services, and the rest is used in agriculture. In Nigeria, a tropical country, farmers rely on rainfall to produce crops which only is available during rainy season. During dry season, production seizes, left to farmers that can install irrigation facilities on their farm. Also, farmers near wetlands like FADAMA area also produce in low quantity.
This shows that one of the most critical resources in agriculture is water. It is also becoming more scarce as we consume around 4 trillion cubic metres of fresh water a year. The global population will only continue to grow, threatening (placing further pressures on) food production (processes).

Climate change is another of the biggest threats to our food supply chain. Rising temperatures are increasing the likelihood of extreme events like floods and droughts, all of which devastate agricultural production. Heat itself is damaging to plants and some regions may no longer be able to grow some staple crops they need to feed the populace.
This effect of climate change significantly impacts water availability for agriculture by causing changes in precipitation patterns, leading to more frequent and severe droughts in many regions, thus reducing the amount of water available for irrigation and potentially causing crop failures, while also increasing the risk of flooding in other areas due to extreme weather events.
With the amount of water available for food production becoming scarcer, crop productivity and yield continues to reduce.
All this had lead to effortless researches and creating new technology to help with water management and preservation. Thus, the inventions of a biodegradable hydrogels came to being as an alternative to soil usage in agriculture production.

HYDROGELS
Hydrogels are water-absorbing polymers that have been used for scientific purposes for many years but were only introduced to agriculture in the early 1980s. The benefit of using them for agriculture is that they can absorb a large amount of water, up to 100 times their dry weight, without dissolving. It is a superabsorbent polymers (SAP).

Natural polymers used to form hydrogels include proteins such as collagen and gelatin, and polysaccharides like agarose and alginate. The single polymer molecule link together to form a chain of a single giant molecule called hydrogel. They are acrylate-based products, meaning they are non-biodegradable, they could be toxic making them to be labelled as potential soil pollutants. All these are the negative effects of hydrogel and also reasons they where not used long before now to produce man’s food.
As at today, hydrogel is made from non-toxic, environmentally friendly materials that have been tested for compatibility with food crops. It can be used to grow vegetables, herbs, and fruits with no harmful chemicals leaching into the produce. Thus, making the produce safe and edible with no health effect. Therefore, it is a trustworthy choice for growing high-quality crops and healthy food.

Hydrogel enhances plant growth in vertical farming by directly providing a consistent, controlled water supply to the roots. This innovative solution minimises water waste and ensures plants receive the ideal hydration level. The hydrogel also retains nutrients, releasing them gradually, which helps maintain optimal growth conditions in the often compact setups of vertical farming environments. It promotes healthier root development, faster growth, and improved yields.

GELPONICS MECHANISMS—SCIENTIFIC INTRICACIES OF GELPONICS AND ITS IMPACT ON THE LANDSCAPE OF VERTICAL FARMING.
(Gelponics in Vertical Farming Understanding the Scientific Architecture )

Vertical farming is a scientific innovation developed to ease farming operation. It involves cultivating crops in stacked layers and optimising resources and space. Nutrients are supplied to plants through water recirculatory system etc.
Gelponics, another innovative technology, has being used to elevate this scientific approach (vertical farming) by intricately balancing nutrient absorption, root health, and overall plant physiology. It operates by gel-like matrix medium which acts as a scientific catalyst, creating an environment where plants can thrive with precision.
It modulates chemical reactions within the substrate, enhancing nutrient bioavailability. This adaptability serves as an elegant scientific solution, transcending traditional growth substrates ( soil).

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF GELPONICS
From scientific researches on the utilzation of gelponics as a growth media in vertical farming, this scientific discovery had proven that Gelponics reduces the ecological footprint by reducing the reliance on pesticides, conserving water, and enhancing climate resilience. It is precise and an efficient sustainable resource management practice.
In addition, Vertical farms enriched by Gelponics, efficiently utilise space, reduce transportation costs, and is an all year-round crop production practice.

IMPORTANCE OF GELPONICS OVER OTHER TYPES OF SUBSTRATE
Because of Geoponics properties, they are excellent replacement for the two most common types of substrate used in agriculture:

1. PEAT : Peat is a brown spongy deposit resembling soil, formed by accumulation of partial decomposition of vegetable matter or decomposition of organic matter in the wet acidic conditions of bogs and fens, and often cut out and dried for use as fuel and in gardening. These materials ( that is, organic matter or vegetable matter) are collected due to waterlogging, oxygen shortage, excessive acidity, and nutrient deficit.
Peat is only found in natural environments known as peatlands, bogs, mires, moors, or muskegs. It is likely to be banned in the UK and Europe by 2030.

2. STONE WOOL :
Stone wool is a highly versatile material, serving dual roles as an effective insulation solution and a growth medium. It is made principally from volcanic rock. It is comprised of 70% natural raw materials including basalt, dolomite and similar rocks, which are generally melted in a cupola furnace with a carbon-containing energy source. It can be recycled at the end of its life, reducing landfill waste.
Stone wool is a highly suitable growing medium for Controlled Environment Agriculture, or indoor cultivation environments. This closed environment, in combination with stone wool and automated growing systems, allows for every aspect of the plants’ lighting, nutrition and irrigation to be controlled by the grower.
It is not a sustainable option, as it has a very high carbon footprint.
While the Gelponics system allows the release of nutrients for plants’ optimal growth, increasing the soil’s nutrient and water retention capabilities. It is an affordable and sustainable food production innovation. The hydrogel-based substrate offers positive protection for plant and seed and do not cause any nutrient loss, soil fertility or water consumption.

In conclusion, GelPonics play a crucial role in harmonising precision, sustainability, and profitability in farm production. The use of GelPonics in Vertical Farming system has transformed the system into a revolutionalized soilless farming system and not merely a farming practice.
This sustainable growth substrate is made from low-carbon products, entirely compostable, and can replace environmentally harmful synthetic materials such as rock wool, peat, and coir. Apart from this, it saves water, control fertilizer, no need of compaction and increase productivity in agricultural operations. By using Gelponics, carbon footprint is reduced significantly and it promote sustainable farming practices that will benefit human, plants, animals, the environment and human communities.

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Peat is a brown spongy deposit resembling soil, formed by the partial decomposition of vegetable matter in the wet acidic conditions of bogs and fens, and often cut out and dried for use as fuel and in gardening. It is also refered to as accumulation of partially decomposed organic matter. These materials ( that is, organic matter or vegetable matter) are collected due to waterlogging, oxygen shortage, excessive acidity, and nutrient deficit.
Peat is only found in natural environments known as peatlands, bogs, mires, moors, or muskegs.
Peat and peat moss are atimes used to mean thesame thing. But the difference is that
peat moss is a specific type of peat that contains sphagnum moss. It is often used in potting soils, has a pH of 3.0–4.0, contain high amount of tannins and it also contains a mixture of organic materials, including moss, decaying plant matter, and dead insects.
Peat is formed in natural areas called  peatlands,  mires, moors, muskegs, and wetlands like bogs and swamps. It is made up of organic matter, mineral matter, and water. It is a major carbon sink that helps prevent global warming.

Soils consisting primarily of peat are known as histosols. Peat formed in  wetland  conditions, where flooding or stagnant water obstructs the flow of oxygen from the atmosphere, brings about a slow rate of decomposition of the materials.
Peatlands, particularly bogs, are the primary source of peat, although less common. Other wetlands including;  fens,  pocosins and peat swamp forests, also deposit peat. Landscapes covered in peat are home to specific kinds of plants, including Sphagnum moss, ericaceous shrubs and sedges.  Peat properties such as organic matter content and saturated hydraulic conductivity can exhibit high spatial heterogeneity.

PEATLAND ECOSYSTEM
By volume, there are about 4 trillion cubic metres of peat in the world. The peatland  ecosystem covers 3.7 million square kilometres (1.4 million square miles) and is the most efficient carbon sink on the planet, because peatland plants capture carbon dioxide (CO2) naturally released from the peat, maintaining an equilibrium. In natural peatlands, the “annual rate of biomass production is greater than the rate of decomposition”, but it takes “thousands of years for peatlands to develop the deposits of 1.5 to 2.3 m (4.9 to 7.5 ft), which is the average depth of the boreal (northern) peatlands”,which store around 415 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon (about 46 times 2019 global CO2 emissions). Globally, peat stores up to 550 Gt of carbon, 42% of all soil carbon, which exceeds the carbon stored in all other vegetation types, including the world’s forests, although it covers just 3% of the land’s surface.
Apart from carbon production, peat is also a good source of energy. Peat is only a minor contributor to the world  energy supply, but large deposits occur in Canada, China, Indonesia, Russia, Scandinavia, and the United States. In the early 21st century the top four peat producers in the world were Finland, Ireland, Belarus, and Sweden, and most of the major users of peat were these and other northern European countries. Peat is sometimes considered a “slowly renewable energy” and is classified as a “solid fossil” rather than a biomass fuel by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Although peat is not strictly a fossil fuel, its greenhouse gas emissions are  comparable  to those of fossil fuels.
IMPORTANCE AND USES OF PEAT

1. Economically, peat is important as a fuel source and raw material. It can be used as fuel once dried. Traditionally, peat is cut by hand and left to dry in the sun. In many countries, including  Ireland  and Scotland, peat are traditionally stacked to dry in rural areas and used for cooking and domestic heating. This tradition can be traced back to the Roman period.

2. It is a common organic soil amendment. Never the less, it is discouraged as a soil amendment by the Royal Botanic Gardens in England, since 2003. While bark or coir-based peat-free potting soil mixes are on the rise, particularly in the UK, peat is still used as raw material for horticulture in some other European countries, Canada, as well as parts of the United States.

3. Peat moss is used in potting and garden soils to grow plants. It is used by gardeners and for horticulture in certain parts of the world, but this is being banned in some places.

4. It is also used in hydroponic gardening

5. Peat is a good growing medium for young plant roots

6. It can be used to manage soil pH. It can help neutralize alkaline soil

7. Peat moss is sterile, so it does not contain microorganisms, pathogens, and weed seeds.

8. Because organic matter accumulates over thousands of years, peat deposits provide records of past vegetation and climate by preserving plant remains, such as pollen. This allows the reconstruction of past environments and the study of land-use changes.

9. WATER SOURCE:  For industrial uses,  companies do use pressure to extract water from the peat, which is soft and easily compressed.

10. In Sweden, farmers use dried peat to absorb excrement from cattle that are wintered indoors.

11. The most essential property of peat is retaining moisture in container soil when it is dry while preventing the excess water from killing roots when it is wet.

12. Peat can store  nutrients  although it is not fertile itself. It is polyelectrolytic with a high ion-exchange capacity due to its oxidized lignin.

13. Peatland can also be an essential source of drinking water, providing nearly 4% of all potable water stored in reservoirs. In the UK, 43% of the population receives drinking water sourced from peatlands, with the number climbing to 68% in Ireland. Catchments containing peatlands are the main source of water for large cities, including Dublin.

14. Peat is a prized natural habitat. It serves as a carbon sink, provides excellent animal habitats, aids in water management (it can hold up to 20 times its weight in water.), and preserves archaeological sites.

15. Peat is important for archaeology since peat maintains a record of former plants, landscapes, and people

16. Peat wetlands also used to have a degree of  metallurgical  importance in the Early Middle Ages. It is the primary source of bog iron used to create swords and armour

17.  Paleoecological studies of peat can be used to reveal what plant communities were present in a locality and region, what period each community occupied the areas, how environmental conditions changed, and how the environment affected the ecosystem in that time and place.

18. In Finland, their climate  favours bog and peat bog formation. Therefore, peat is in abundance and It is burned to produce heat and electricity. Peat provides around 4% of Finland’s annual energy production.

19. Mineral production: The formation of peat is the first step in the  formation  of coal. With increasing depth of burial and increasing temperature, peat deposits are gradually changed to lignite. With increased time and higher temperatures, these low-rank coals are gradually converted to subbituminous and bituminous coal and under certain conditions to anthracite.

20. Peat soil may improve ventilation in organic soil mix and give plants’ roots more breathing space.

21. Apart from peat being used for domestic heating purposes, it also forms a fuel suitable for boiler firing in either briquetted or pulverized form.

22. In horticulture, peat is used to increase the moisture-holding capacity of sandy soils and to increase the water infiltration rate of clay soils.

23. It is also added to potting mixes to meet the acidity requirements of certain potted plants.

24. Peat can be used in water filtration and is sometimes utilized for the treatment of urban runoff, wastewater, and septic tank effluent.

25. It is also used to soften aquarium water and to mimic habitats for freshwater fish

25. Flood mitigation: Many peat swamps along the coast of Malaysia serve as a natural means of flood mitigation. Any overflow will be absorbed by the peat, provided forests are still present to prevent peat fires.

26. Peat has being reported to be soft and therefore suitable for demersal (bottom-dwelling) species such as Corydoras catfish. Peat has also being reported to have many other beneficial functions in freshwater aquaria. It softens water by acting as an ion exchanger, it also contains substances that are beneficial for plants and fishes’ reproductive health. Peat can prevent algae growth and kill microorganisms. Peat often stains the water yellow or brown due to the leaching of tannins.

27. Balneotherapy: Peat is widely used in  balneotherapy  (the use of bathing to treat disease). Many traditional spa treatments include peat as part of peloids. Such health treatments have an enduring tradition in European countries, including Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany and Austria. Some of these old spas date back to the 18th century and are still active today. The most common types of peat application in balneotherapy are peat muds, poultices and suspension baths.

28. Peat archives: Peat archives are the fossilized remains of plant and animal life, as well as archaeological artifacts, that are preserved in peat deposits. The fossilized changes occur for a very long time in which the vegetation, pollen, spores, animals (from microscopic to the giant elk), and archaeological remains are deposited in place by water, as well as pollen, spores and particles brought in by wind and weather. These remains are collectively termed the peat archives.
Peats are bioaccumulators of metals which concentrated in the peat. Accumulated mercury is of significant environmental concern. Scientists uses peat archieves to estimate and compare  mercury (Hg) accumulation rates especially in bogs using natural archives records in peat bogs and lake sediments and also to estimate the potential human impacts on the biogeochemical cycle of mercury,

29. Bog bodies:
Naturally mummified human bodies are called “bog bodies”. These mummified human bodies are found in various places of Scotland, England, Ireland, northern Germany and Denmark. These bodies perfectly preserved by using  tanning properties of the acidic water, as well as antibiotic properties of the organic component sphagnan. A famous example is the Tollund Man in Denmark discovered in 1950
Other Benefits of
Peat include:

30. Peat is used to prevent soil compaction

31. Peat soil is free of pathogens

32. Peat soil, as opposed to untreated compost, is a suitable choice for seed starting since it hardly includes hazardous microbes such as weed seeds or toxic bacteria.

33. Peat soil holds moisture. The organic elements in peat soil trap moisture, making it a helpful supplement for drier soil types like sandy soil.

34. Peat soil has an acidic pH:
Peat soil has a low pH and can enhance soil conditions in alkaline soils, particularly for plants that prefer more significant acidity levels, such as blueberries and azaleas.

PEAT MOSS
 Sphagnum moss, also called peat moss, is one of the most common components and constituent of peat, although many other plants can contribute to peat formation. The biological features of sphagnum mosses act to create a habitat aiding peat formation, a phenomenon termed ‘habitat manipulation’. 
Sphagnum peat moss is an aquatic plant that floats on the surface of waterways such as the edges of ponds. Over time it builds up a thick carpet of the stuff, providing growing space for other riparian plants, or plants that grow along the edge of water. As the peat plant matures, the older material dies but new peat grows on top. This leads to a thick layer of both dead and live peat moss.

Peat moss can be harvested from bogs, fens, or peatlands and introduced into a water body to produce peat. The primary areas of the world where they are harvested is in Canada and Russia.
Peat moss are usually too acidic for non-acid-loving plants, they are non renewable and not sustainable, they lack nutrient content, attracts bugs such as fungus gnats when decaying and after it dries out, it takes a while to reabsorb water.
Peat moss is ideal for plants and fruits that require an acidic climate due to its low pH. Blueberries, heathers, azaleas, camellias, tomatoes, and other plants fall under this category.

MATERIALS THAT DECOMPOSE TO FORM PEAT
PEAT materials accumulated under conditions of waterlogging, oxygen deficiency, high acidity and nutrient deficiency and decompose partially to form peat.
In temperate, boreal and sub-arctic regions, where low temperatures (below freezing for long periods during the winter) reduce the rate of decomposition, peat is formed mainly from bryophytes (mostly sphagnum mosses), herbs, shrubs and small trees.
In the lowland humid tropics, peat is derived mostly from rain forest trees (leaves, branches, trunks and roots) under near constant annual high temperatures.
In other geographical regions, peat can be formed from other species of plants that are able to grow in water-saturated conditions. For example, in New Zealand peat is formed from members of the Restionaceae while in tropical coastal fringes peat is formed in mangrove. New types of peat may still be found in other areas of the world
PEAT FORMATION
Over time, the formation of peat is often the first step in the geological formation of fossil fuels such as coal, particularly low-grade coal such as lignite.
It has being reported that Peat extraction rate in industrialized countries exceeds its slow regrowth rate of 1 mm (0.04 in) per year, and as it is also reported that peat regrowth takes place only in 30–40% of peatlands, this has resulted in loss of peat lands.
Apart from this, centuries of burning and draining of peat by humans has released a significant amount of CO2 into the atmosphere, and much peatland restoration is needed to help limit climate change.
“Peatification” is influenced by several factors, including the nature of the plant material deposited, the availability of nutrients to support bacterial life, the availability of oxygen, the acidity of the peat, and temperature. Peats are formed in wetlands and other places. Some wetlands result from rise in groundwater levels, whereas some elevated bogs are the result of heavy rainfall. Although the rate of plant growth in cold regions is very slow, this also result in very slow rate of organic matter decomposition. Plant material decomposes more rapidly in groundwater rich in nutrients than in elevated bogs with heavy rainfall. The presence of oxygen (aerobic conditions) is necessary for fungal and microbial activity that promotes decomposition, but peat is formed in waterlogged soils with little or no access to oxygen (anaerobic conditions), largely preventing the complete decomposition of organic material. All these are factors that affect peat formation.
Peat forms when plant material does not fully decay in acidic and anaerobic conditions. These plant materials are composed mainly of wetland vegetation, principally bog plants including mosses, sedges and shrubs. As the peats are formed, it accumulates and hold more water. This slowly creates wetter conditions that allow the area of wetland to expand. This peatification process do result in another process known as the hydrosere process. A hydrosere process, also known as hydrarch or aquatic succession, is the ecological succession that occurs in aquatic environments like ponds and lakes, gradually transforming a water body into a terrestrial ecosystem like a woodland, through the accumulation of sediments and organic matter, eventually leading to the establishment of land vegetation on the previously open water area. It is essentially the process of a water body filling in and becoming land over time. Hydrosere process begins in open water and progresses through fen phases impacted by nutrient-rich groundwater (and rainfall) to a bog that obtains nutrients and water supplies exclusively from rainfall.

FEATURES OF PEAT LANDS

1. Peatland features can include ponds, ridges and raised bogs.

2.  Some bog plants are characterised to actively promote bog formation. For example, sphagnum mosses actively secrete tannins, which preserve organic material.

3. Sphagnum also have special water-retaining cells, known as hyaline cells, which can release water ensuring the bogland remains constantly wet which helps promote peat production.
4. Peat usually accumulates slowly at the rate of about a millimetre per year.

5. Peat land is characterized by the accumulation and store of dead organic matter from Sphagnum and many other non-moss species under conditions of almost permanent water saturation.

6. Peatlands are adapted to the extreme conditions of high water and low oxygen content, of toxic elements and low availability of plant nutrients.

7. The peatland and peat water chemistry varies from alkaline to acidic.

8. Peat material is either fibric, hemic, or sapric. Fibric peats are the least decomposed and consist of intact fibre. Hemic peats are partially decomposed and sapric are the most decomposed.

9. Phragmites peat are composed of reed grass, Phragmites australis, and other grasses. It is denser than many other types of peat.

10. Engineers may describe a soil as peat which has a relatively high percentage of organic material. This soil is problematic because it exhibits poor  consolidation  properties. It cannot be easily compacted to serve as a stable foundation to support loads, such as roads or buildings.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECOLOGICAL ISSUES PERTAINING TO PEAT AND PEAT LANDS

1. The Ecological conditions of peat wetlands is conducive as an habitat for fauna and flora. For example, some crane nests are found in aboundance in several peat wetland areas like whooping cranes nest in North American peatlands and Siberian cranes nest in the West Siberian peatland.  Palsa mires have a rich bird life. In Canada, riparian peat banks are used as maternity sites for polar bears. Natural peatlands also have many species of wild orchids and carnivorous plants.

2. Around half of the area of northern peatlands is  permafrost ( A ground that remains frozen for at least two years, and is made up of soil, sand, rocks, and ice. It’s found in cold climates, like the Arctic and the poles)-affected, and this area represents around a tenth of the total permafrost area, and also a tenth (185 ± 66 Gt) of all permafrost carbon, equivalent to around half of the carbon stored in the atmosphere. Dry peat is a good insulator (with a thermal conductivity of around 0.25 Wm−1K−1) and therefore plays an important role in protecting permafrost from thaw. The insulating effect of dry peat also makes it integral to unique permafrost landforms such as palsas and permafrost peat plateaus.
 Peatland permafrost thaw tends to result in an increase in methane emissions and a small increase in carbon dioxide uptake, meaning that it contributes to the permafrost carbon feedback.
 Under 2 °C global warming, 0.7 million km2 of peatland permafrost could thaw, and with warming of +1.5 to 6 °C a cumulative 0.7 to 3 PgC of methane could be released as a result of permafrost peatland thaw by 2100. The forcing from these potential emissions would be approximately equivalent to 1% of projected anthropogenic emissions.

3. Peat is usually hand-cut, although progress has been made in the excavation and spreading of peat by mechanical methods. Peat may be cut by spade in the form of blocks, which are spread out to dry. When dry, the blocks weigh from 0.34 to 0.91 kg (0.75 to 2 pounds). In mechanized method, a dredger or excavator digs the peat from the drained bog and delivers it to a macerator (a device that softens and separates a material into its component parts through soaking), which extrudes the peat pulp through a rectangular opening. The pulp is cut into blocks, which are spread to dry. Maceration tends to yield more uniform shrinkage and a denser and tougher fuel. Hydraulic excavating can also be used, particularly in bogs that contain roots and tree trunks. The peat is washed down by a high-pressure water jet, and the pulp runs to a sump. There, after slight maceration, it is pumped to a draining ground in a layer, which, after partial drying, is cut up and dried further.

CLASSIFICATION OF PEATS
According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Classification, peat is an organic soil (Histosol) that contains a minimum of 20% organic matter increasing to 30% if as much as 60% of the mineral matter is clay. Other authorities have adopted definitions of peat with organic matter content higher than 30% and thickness greater than 30cm.
The types of peats are classified based on the following:
A. Types of peats based on the various layers formed.
Several types and grades of peat are available. The features of peat are determined by factors such as the depth, the extraction technique, and the peat location’s meteorological conditions. Here are the six peat types described below:

1. UPPER PEAT LAYER
The peat’s upper layer is the peat profile’s first ten inches. It is mostly alive and comprises of tall stems of sphagnum moss. Water flows readily through this zone. The top layer of peat has the drawback of not necessarily being homogeneous in the constitution.

2.. PEAT LITTER
Also known as peat dust, it is the unsheathed upper sheet of the peat profile. The result is pale brown and just slightly degraded. It can hold at least eight times its weight in water. The release of water and absorption is slower in this peat than in sphagnum peat moss. Peat litter comes in three sizes: coarse, fine, and normal. Its grade is determined by the extraction process utilised.

3. SPHAGNUM PEAT MOSS
Sphagnum peat moss is a novel, partly decayed sphagnum moss that holds 10-12 times its mass in water. With a pale hue, it is nearly entirely composed of several varieties of sphagnum moss. Since sphagnum peat moss is a comparatively newer organic substance, it degrades faster than older peat varieties. Sphagnum peat moss is currently the most common peat in high-quality potting mixes.

4. NON-PERMAFROST BLACK PEAT
Also referred to as champ peat, old peat, and casing soil peat, this peat type is not ideal for potting soil because it significantly shrinks when dried and has lower retention qualities. It creates pressed peat or hard peat used as fuel when properly dried.

5. COLOURED PEAT
Also called grey peat, it derives from the sheet between the black and white layers of peat. This level has decayed more than the white layer, and its hue lies between black and white peat. They hold less water than peat litter and sphagnum moss peat.

6. GARDEN PEAT
It is an essential source of potting soil and is made by freezing, moist black peat. The frozen state of the garden peat determines its quality. Freezing the black peat increases its water-retaining properties and decreases its shrinking properties.

After drying, garden peat may absorb at least four times its weight in water. Being dark brown in colour indicates that it has proceeded to an advanced level of decomposition. It has lower air content since it is made up of very small particles.

B. Peats may be divided into several types based on their macroscopic, microscopic, and chemical characteristics. These types include:

1. fibric,

2. coarse hemic,

3. hemic,

4. fine hemic, and

5. sapric,
Peat may be distinguished from lower-ranked coals on the basis of four characteristics:

1. Peats generally contain free cellulose, more than 75 percent moisture,

2. Peats containing free cellulose less than 60 percent carbon,

3. Peats that can be cut with a knife.

4. The transition of peat to brown coal which takes place slowly and is usually reached at depths ranging from 100 to 400 metres (approximately 330 to 1,300 feet).
These lower-rank coals include; lignite and subbituminous coal. 

OVER EXPLOITATION OF PEATLANDS
For generations, peatlands have been under threat. They are either drained to create a place for fertile grazing and agriculture, or they are damaged by peat extraction for electricity. When peatlands are drained, their peat is exposed to air and emits carbon dioxide 20 times quicker than sequestered.

PEATLAND RESTORATION, PROTECTION, MANAGEMENT AND REHABILITATION.
Different forms of management are used to conserve peats and peatland and this management might provide different results. Grazing and burning, for example, may play a beneficial role in the long-term management of peatlands maintained for nature. However, drainage and peat cutting can have a substantial influence on peatlands, resulting in irreversible damage to the peatland site.
Another management practices used for peat and peatland is conservation practices. Peatland conservation begins with site hydrology management, which helps to limit greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide. Depending on the starting point, peatland areas may require drain blockage to rewet them, utilising several techniques such as peat dams, plastic piling and bunding, plantation removal, pollution management, sphagnum transfer, and/or control of grazing, burning, water quantity and quality.
In the case of restoration of already degraded peatlands,
peatland restoration can be done by blocking drainage channels in the peatland, and allowing natural vegetation to recover.
 Rehabilitation projects undertaken in North America and Europe usually focus on the rewetting of peatlands and revegetation of native species. This acts to mitigate carbon release in the short term before the new growth of vegetation provides a new source of organic litter to fuel the peat formation in the long term.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF PEAT IN THE ENVIRONMENT

1. Mass volumes of stored carbon dioxide are released when peat is harvested, contributing to greenhouse gas levels.

2. Peat are banned in certain areas. Peat must be moist to be healthy and operate properly. Its exploitation for human use, dries the peat, causing the environment to deteriorate.

3. PEAT DRAINAGE:
Large areas of organic wetland (peat) soils are currently drained for agriculture, forestry and peat extraction (i.e. through canals) purposes. This process is taking place all over the world. This not only destroys the habitat of many species but also result in heavy fuels climate change. As a result of this peat drainage, organic carbon built for thousands of years underwater is suddenly exposed to the air. This result in the organic matter decompositon, turning it into carbon dioxide (CO2), which is released into the atmosphere. Thus, resulting in climate change.
 The global CO2 emissions from drained peatlands have increased from 1,058 Mton in 1990 to 1,298 Mton in 2008 (a 20% increase) and still continue to increase till date. This can be noticed in developing countries like Indonesia, Malaysia and Papua with New Guinea being the fastest-growing top emitters. This estimate excludes emissions from peat fires (conservative estimates amount to at least 4,000 Mton/CO2-eq./yr for south-east Asia). With 174 Mton/CO2-eq./yr, the EU is after Indonesia (500 Mton) and before Russia (161 Mton), the world’s second-largest emitter of drainage-related peatland CO2 (excl. extracted peat and fires). Total CO2 emissions from the worldwide degradation of peatland may exceed 2.0 Gtons (including emissions from peat fires), which is almost 6% of all global carbon emissions. With this, climate change and greenhouse gas emissions increases.

4. PEAT FIRES: Peat can be a major fire hazard and cannot be extinguished by light rain. Peat fires may burn for great lengths of time, or smoulder underground and reignite after winter in temperate region or during hammattan in tropical region if an oxygen source is present.

Peat has a high carbon content and can burn under low moisture conditions. Once ignited by the presence of a heat source (e.g., a wildfire penetrating the subsurface), it smoulders. These smouldering fires can burn undetected for very long periods of time (months, years, and even centuries) propagating in a creeping fashion through the underground peat layer.

Despite the damage that the burning of raw peat can cause, bogs are naturally subject to wildfires. These wildfires can keep competitive woody plants from lowering the water table and shading out many bog plants. Several families of plants including the carnivorous Sarracenia (trumpet pitcher),  Dionaea (Venus flytrap),  Utricularia  (bladderworts) and non-carnivorous plants such as the sandhills lily, toothache grass and many species of orchid in the bog becomes threatened and in some cases become endangered from the combined forces of human drainage, negligence and absence of fire.
Most wildfires occurring in countries all over the world like
the recent burning of peat bogs in Indonesia, the 1997, peat and forest fires in Indonesia, peat fires in Kalimantan and East Sumatra, peat fires in North America from boreal forests in Canada to swamps and fens in the subtropical southern Florida Everglades etc result in destruction of wetland and wildlife resources.
These burning result in burning of hollows in the peat, hummocks desiccated which contribute to Sphagnum  recolonization. Thousands of houses are burnt like the high heat wave that occur from Central Russia to the capital of Moscow with a toxic smoke blanket during the 2010 summer period.
 These peat fires are linked to climate change, as they are much more likely to occur nowadays due to this effect.

5. EROSION (PEAT HAGS)
Peat “hags” are a form of erosion that occur at the sides of gullies that cut into the peat. They sometimes also occur in isolation. Hags may result when flowing water cuts downwards into the peat and when fire or overgrazing exposes the peat surface. Once the peat is exposed in these ways, it is prone to further erosion by wind, water and livestock. The result is overhanging vegetation and peat. Hags are too steep and unstable for vegetation to establish itself, so they continue to erode unless restorative action is taken.

6. PROTECTION: The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity highlights peatlands as key ecosystems to be conserved and protected. The convention requires governments at all levels to present action plans for the conservation and management of wetland environments. Wetlands are also protected under the 1971 Ramsar Convention.
In June 2002, the United Nations Development Programme launched the Wetlands Ecosystem and Tropical Peat Swamp Forest Rehabilitation Project. This project was targeted to last for five years, and brings together the efforts of various non-government organisations.
In November 2002, the International Peatland (formerly Peat) Society (IPS) and the International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) published guidelines on the “Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands – Backgrounds and Principles including a framework for decision-making”. This publication aims to develop mechanisms that can balance the conflicting demands on the global peatland heritage to ensure its wise use to meet the needs of humankind.
In June 2008, the IPS published the book Peatlands and Climate Change, summarising the currently available knowledge on the topic. In 2010, IPS presented a “Strategy for Responsible Peatland Management”, which can be applied worldwide for decision-making

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The sustainability of the world agricultural system is now an important global issue. Agricultural soils are overmined, leading to an unexplainable degradation and low yield. One of the ways devices by farmers, agronomist and scientist to increase efficiency and obtaining a better quality of produce recovery in agricultural activities is fertilizer application.
The two main types of fertilizers include; organic fertilizers and inorganic or chemical fertilizers.
A lot of negative effects accompany the excessive use of inorganic/chemical fertilizers. Overreliance on chemical fertilizers could lead to severe soil acidification, nutritional imbalance, deterioration of the rhizosphere microecological environment, and further increase in the activity of heavy metal ions in soil.
Organic fertilizers on the other hand has being a sustainable and conservation means with long term effects of increasing crop yield, improving soil health and fertility. In addition, they protect the environment, eco-friendly and cost-effective inputs to the farmers. Some examples of organic fertilizers include animal manure, poultry droppings, rabbit droppings, neem extracts, green manure, compost and sapropels etc. The name Sapropel is an ancient Greek words. Sapros means putrefaction and pelos means mud (or clay). It is a term used in marine geology to describe a dark-coloured, organic-rich sediment that forms at the bottom of bodies of water. It is made up of the remains of organisms like plankton, dead aquatic vegetation, the remains of living organisms, and also particles of soil humus, containing a large amount of organic substances, humus: ligninumus complex, carbohydrates, bitumens and others in a colloidal state. The Organic carbon concentrations in sapropels commonly exceed 2 wt.% in weight.
Sapropel or biodeposit is a promising biological deposit from water bodies, has found its limelight in its use in agricultural crop production as a soil conditioner and biofertilizer. It is a resource that is valuable and applicable in agriculture. It can present an important contribution to the solution of the conservation of the fertility of the soil for integrated nutrient management systems to maintain agricultural productivity and help in environmental conservation.
ADVANTAGES OF SAPROPEL OVER OTHER ORGANIC FERTILIZERS

1. It is made up of humic substances, microelements and microorganisms. This makes it a rich source of plant nutrients.

2. It has a long term effect

3. It’s efficiency has effect of and last longer between 7-10years.

4. It is 50% water saving

5. It easily and quickly change sand soil to fertile soils.

6. It has unique organic matter content.

USES OF SAPROPEL

1. FERTILIZERS AND SUBSTRATES: Sapropel is rich in organics, micro and macro elements, humic and fulvic acids. It is a valuable organic fertilizer, soil conditioner and additive for substrates. It is successfully used for long-term improvement of soil and production of various substrates.

2. FEED ADDITIVE FOR ANIMALS AND BIRDS: Sapropel is also a rich source of B group vitamins, micro and macro elements, essential amino acids and bio stimulators. This gives reasons why it is highly used as a valuable feed additive for pigs and birds.

3. SPA AND BALNEOTHERAPY:
Sapropel is a unique material for used in balneology and SPA ( Sanus Per Aquam meaning ‘health by or through water’) treatments. Sapropel contains many organic, biologically active substances and microelements. During a procedure, it not only has positive effects on skin, but also other body tissue and organs, improves blood flow, protects skin from drying, aging and moistens it.

4. INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS:
Sapropel is used in keramzit production. Keramzit is a type of artificial porous filler which are lightweight concretes. Keramzit is used as a heat-insulating and sound-insulating filler in structural components of various types of buildings.
It is produced by roasting fusible, swelling clay ores along with slightly swelling clay ores and additives (such as solar oil, sawdust, peat, or a sulfate-alcohol mash); the roasting is done in rotary furnaces. One of the challenges in its production is to create a clay mixture with as high as possible expansion coefficient. Because sapropel contains organic, iron and silica, it is used effectively to increase that coefficient and to lower temperature needed.

5. SAPROPEL IN BIOFUEL PRODUCTION: Due to sapropel physical properties, it is suitable for biofuel production.

6. Sapropel also have strong binding properties, very useful in briquettes and granules formation. It is also used as an effective binding material during the production of thermo-isolating panels. Dry sapropel does not absorb water

7. Sapropel can be a raw material for chemistry industry, also as an addition in the production of construction materials.

8. Products with sapropel are resistant to mold.

9. Various useful materials can be extracted from sapropel, such as: tar, pitch, lipids, vitamins and sugar etc.

10. It has bactericidal properties. This gives reasons why plants growing in soil mulched with sapropel have less diseases.

11. Sapropel is also used in energy fuel production. This occurs during material extraction and preparation in a process called fuel briquette (direct extraction of useful heat).
Briquetting is a process of transforming loose material into the solid material, called briquette. The briquetting process is widely used in industry.

12. It can increase the nitrogen, phosphorous, humus, and microelement content of soil.

13. Sapropel is used in the preparation of soil substrates/growth media. A form of mixtures with peat, sludge, and any kind of composted biowaste.

14. It is commonly used in the amendments of different soils to increase nitrogen, phosphorous, humus, and microelements’ content.

15. It is clean and efficient ecologically friendly natural material used in agriculture as biofertilizer and soil conditioner .

16. A research reported that the use of sapropel as a fertilizer can increase barley yields by 15 to 20% and of potatoes by 25 to 30%.

17. Additionally, organic-based fertilizers like sapropel have a positive impact on amino acids content in tea and pH of the soil as a result of increased relative abundance of microorganisms belonging to Burkholderiales, Myxococcales, Streptomycetales, Nitrospirales, Ktedonobacterales, Acidobacteriales, Gemmatimonadales, and Solibacterales groups.

18. A recent reseach carried out in south-west Siberia by Naumova et al on the effect of sapropel-amended soil on the yield of field tomatoes reported that sapropel amendment do not influence tomato fruit yield, but instead increased lycopene content in the fruits by 80%, thus improving fruit quality.

19. The following soil properties “soil microbiological properties, mineralization of organic matter, and nitrogen immobilization” are more responsive to sapropel when used as soil ammendment than other soil chemical properties.

20. In an experiment carried out on plants lagging in their development, reported that the plants advanced in development and surpassed other plants in appearance when treated with the organic-mineral fertilizers (OMF) like sapropel. It was also reported that sapropel-based fertilizer are very effective in the early stages of fruiting when optimal application rate of 1 litre per 10000 m2 is carried out.

21. Also, a recent studies had reported that the use of organic fertilizer like sapropel treatment do lower the contents of cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and arsenic (As) in tea leaves significantly.

22. In an undocumented experiment carried out in Kenya reported that data collected in different regions of Tala in Machakos showed that the application of BDA on bananas, maize plantation, vegetables, coffee plantations, hydroponic cow feeds, and poultry farming resulted in positive effect in the quality of the produce and also increases the yield of the produce.

23. Addition of sapropel to soil can change not only soil acidity but also can increase the moisture level of soil as well as total porosity becomes improved.

24. The use of sapropel as a soil fertilizer can improve soil physical properties better than limestone or farmyard manure applications.

25. A research carried out on the effect of sapropel as a mineral fertilizer on the growth activity of tomatoes, beetroot, Swedish turnip, and carrot plants reported that mineral based fertilizer like sapropel contain unspecified substances that contributed to the plant growth activities in the seedling growth tests. The study further reported that BioDeposit Agro (BDA) sapropel contains substrate that enhance plant growth and low in growth-inhibiting component. BDA promoted the growth of both hypocotyl and radicle in all the tested seedlings. However, it was noted that the growth stimulation of the radicle was more by 10% compared to hypocotyl growth except for tomato seedlings. Also, variations in BDA concentration did not have any significant effect on hypocotyl growth.

26. Crop productivity is discovered to increased in higher level on seasonal bases after applications of carbonate sapropel as compared to limestone. This is due to the mineral content in sapropel and it plant nutrition potential properties.

27. Sapropels are eco-friendly fertilizers as they add nutrients to soils.

28. Sapropel modifies and improves the soil structure, physical properties, soil aeration, viscosity, and capillary rise. It positively have impacts on the hydrophilic-hydrophobic properties in fertilized soils, thus activates water movement and air mode in soils.

29. A study by Angelova et al. compared the effects of soil amendments with phosphorous compounds, organic fertilizers, and sapropel on the quantity of the phyto-accessible forms of lead (pb), zinc (Zn), and cadmium (Cd) and their uptake by triticale. The results indicated that the effect of the soil amendments on the mobile forms of the three elements were specific without a clear trend. A clear tendency, however, for the reduction of these three elements was observed with the use of natural fertilizers. The study also established that the absorption of Pb, Zn, and Cd by triticale was not related to the amount of mobile forms.

30. Sapropel possesses water-consuming and water-retaining abilities, and it increases the humus content in the soil and activates soil processes.

31. sapropel fertilizer is nonhazardous, therefore, can activate many biochemical and chemical processes and pathways in plants, leading to an increase of self-purification.

32. It can also stimulate seed sprouting and root growth of cultivated plants.

33. Sapropel also increases the humus content besides participating in the cycling of nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and other microelements within the soil.

34. Sapropel can be used in paleo-reconstructions to provide information about past climates and oceanography

35. A research carried out in the Middle East countries in determining the effect of organic fertilizers, of both sapropel and peat as a fertilizers and soil conditioner as pretreatment of soil in greenhouses and on cucumbers raised in greenhouses, lead to yield increase of the cucumber.

FORMATION OF SAPROPEL
Worldwide, accumulation, formation, and intensive use of sapropel in agriculture and energy have been reported in temperate regions of Asia and Europe especially in Latvia, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Russia, Lithuania, Scandinavian Peninsula, Poland, France, Germany, and Belarus and Canada and the USA from the continent of America in the Great Lakes region and most Middle East countries such as Jordan and Saudi Arabia.
Sapropel is often found in the Mediterranean, Black Sea, and Baltic Sea. It is also found in freshwater bodies. It is formed in nutrient-rich waters under anaerobic conditions and can be formed from gyttja, or accumulate on top of it. 
FRESHWATER SAPROPEL
In freshwater ecosystems, living organisms are important biological components that form sapropel. The most predominant living organisms transforming the complex organic matter and minerals in these ecosystems are the prokaryotes. Sapropel in this environment is highly populated with microorganisms ranging between 5.2 × 103 and 6.9 × 106 colony forming units (CFU) per gram of dry matter. The depth of the sediment determines the number and composition of the organisms, that is, they decrease with increase in depth of sediments. The most significant group of microorganisms found in sapropel is antibiotic producers (fungi and actinomycetes) and vitamin producers (bacteria and algae). Also found in the sediment are facultative anaerobes and or aerobes such as Micrococcus spp., Rhodococcus spp., Agrobacterium-related organisms, nitrogen-fixing groups (such as Azotobacter and Arthrobacter, among others), sulfur-reducing bacteria (Deltaproteobacteria) and methanogenic Euryarchaeota. Fe (III)-reducing bacteria like Geobacter spp. , Cyanobacteria, and other plant growth-promoting bacteria belonging to Gammaproteobacteria and Bacilli have also been found in sapropel. Therefore, the presence of living organisms is important in decomposition and transformation of organic substances into individual components available to the plants.

SAPROPEL FORMATION IN OCEAN AND SEAS
Sapropels have been recorded in the Mediterranean sediments since the closure of the Eastern Tethys Ocean 13.5 million years ago. The formation of sapropel events in the Mediterranean Sea occurs approximately every 21,000 years and last between 3,000 and 5,000 years. The first identification of these events occurred in the mid-20th century. Since then, their formulative conditions of have been investigated.
The occurrence of sapropels has been related to the Earth’s orbital parameters (Milankovitch cycles). The precession cycles influence the African monsoon, which influences the Mediterranean circulation through increases in freshwater inputs.
The term sapropel events refer to cyclic oceanic anoxic events (OAE), in particular those affecting the Mediterranean Sea with a periodicity of about 21,000 years. Sapropel development occur under reduced oxygen at the bottom of waters bodies during oceanic anoxic event (OAE). Oxygen only reach the deep sea bottom by new deep-water formation and consequent “ventilation” of deep basins. There are two main causes of OAE:

1. Reduction in deep-water circulation and

2. Raised oxygen demand from upper level.

1. REDUCTION IN DEEP-WATER CIRCULATION
A reduction in deep-water circulation do lead to a serious decrease in deep-water oxygen concentrations due to biochemical oxygen demand during the decay of organic matter. This organic matter sinks into the deep sea as a result of export production from surface waters. Oxygen depletion in bottom waters then favours the enhanced preservation of the organic matter during burial by the sediments.

2. RAISED OXYGEN DEMAND FROM UPPER LEVEL
Organic-rich sediments may also form in well-ventilated settings that have highly productive surface waters. Here, the high surface demand simply extracts the oxygen before it can enter the deep circulation current thus depriving the bottom waters of oxygen.

SAPROPEL FORMATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN OCEAN
Sapropelic deposits from global ocean anoxic events form important oil source rocks. In eastern Mediterranean ocean, sapropel formation and deposits have concentrated here, the last of which occurred between 9.5 and 5.5 thousand years ago.

SAPROPEL FORMATION IN BLACK SEA
In the Black Sea, sapropels are distributed at a depth of 500 to 2200 m, and in different morpholithological zones. The sapropels here have different thicknesses. Deep sea sediments are called the sediments formed outside the zone of influence of hydrogenic factors. Some of the hydrogenic factors include: wind-driven waves and internal waves as well as of the transgressive and regressive cycles of the Black Sea basin.
These deep sea sediments called sapropels are considered “deep sea organogenic mineral sediment” (DSOMS) because they are deep-sea sediments with a significant organic component. Note that not all DSOMS are classified as sapropels.
A DSOMS is essentially a broader term encompassing any sediment rich in organic matter from the deep sea. That is, sediments that contain more than 3% organic carbon. while a “sapropel” is a specific type of DSOMS characterized by particularly high concentrations of organic matter, often formed under conditions of low oxygen and rapid organic matter deposition, typically appearing as dark, layered deposits in marine sediment cores. The sapropels form a single horizon with constant thickness typical of the Black Sea basin. Analogues of the sapropels on the continental shelf and the upper part of the continental slope are the green aleurite-pelite, oozes with accumulation of plant detritus and decomposed shells of Mytilus galloprovincialis. The transition from aleurite-pelitic oozes to sapropels is facial. The organic matter in the sapropels is of heterogeneous origin. They are composed primarily of planktogenic organisms (about 80%) and continental organic matter (20%). The planktonic organisms are well preserved in most cases under the conditions of the hydrogen sulfide zone. The main components of the sapropels are the dinoflagellate cysts, diatom algae, coccolithophorids, peridiniales. The mineral part of sapropel muds is represented by a poly-component mixture of clay minerals. The minerals illite and montmorillonite predominate, chlorite and kaolinite occur in subordinate quantities. Individual grains of quartz, feldspar, volcanic glass and others are rarely found among them. Carbonate minerals are mainly represented by calcite and dolomite. It is generally accepted that the main source of hydrogen sulfide in the Black Sea today are the processes of anaerobic decomposition of organic matter by sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB). The organic substance that is fixed at the bottom of the basin in the form of organogenic-mineral sediments (sapropels) is a product of the mass extinction of the plankton biomass as a result of the Black Sea flood. There is an excess of a huge amount of organic matter, which creates favorable conditions for the development of bacterial sulfate reduction.

COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SAPROPEL
Sapropel also known as biodeposit is freshwater organic-rich mud sediment formed from the remains of plankton, water plants, and other marine-dwelling organisms which are involved in the transformation of mineral components. Sapropels have a complex chemical composition with a broad range of values and it depends on the geographical position of the region of occurrence.

Sapropel consists of three main components:

1. water about 60–90%

2. mineral substances consisting of microelements manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), boron (B), zinc (Zn), iodine (I), chromium (Cr), silver (Ag), barium (Ba), titanium (Ti), molybdenum (Mo), and beryllium (Be), among others, and macroelements including nitrogen, silica, calcium, magnesium, iron, aluminium, potassium, phosphorus, and sulfur. Presence of these substances in the soil improves the humus content thus preventing erosion and eventually restoring soil fertility by improving the soil structure.

3. Organic substances with organic matter ranging from 15 to 90% by weight, organic carbon not less than 40%, and moisture content ranging between 60 and 90%. Sapropel also contains many biologically active substances such as water-soluble vitamins A (retinol), В1 (thiamine), C (ascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid), В2 (riboflavin), B3 (niacin), В6 (pyridoxine), В12 (cyanocobalamin), provitamin for vitamin A (β-carotene), and B9 (folic acid) and fat-soluble vitamins E (α-tocopherol), D, and P. It also contain water-soluble amino acids such as; histidine, glutamine, glycine, valine, arginine, aspartate, alanine, serine, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, lysine, methionine, threonine, and cysteine. Also, it contains natural enzymes such as; catalase, peroxidase, reductase, protease, urease, and xanthine oxidase. Included are humic complex such as; humic and fulvic acids. Humic acids are the largest group of organic substances and are dark brown. They have adhesive properties and thus associated with minerals in the soil, which significantly improves the soil structure and affects the growth and development of plants.
Phytohormones such as gibberellic acid, cytokinin, ethylene, abscisic acid, brassinosteroids, and derivatives of indole-3-acetic acid are also found in sapropels. They affect plant growth and development.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SAPROPEL

1. Sapropel is characterized by a low amount of carbohydrate. The organic matter in sapropel contains 6–25% hemicellulose and 1–8% cellulose, and these can be used in the production of fertilizers, relevant in agriculture and horticulture as well as additives in animal feed.

2. Sapropel contains high amounts of bitumen which is characterized by fatty acids, steroids, paraffin, wax, glycerol, hydrocarbons, and other nonhydrolysable substances.

3. Bitumen in sapropel plays an inhibitory role against various microorganisms with antioxidant activity.

4. Another important active component of sapropel is antibiotics, mostly synthesized by fungi and actinomycetes, which promote nitrogen transfer to the form available to plants.

USE OF SAPROPEL IN ANIMAL FEED PRODUCTION
In agriculture, sapropel is used in the production of animal feed. It is highly concentrated with proteins, vitamins, enzymes, and other biologically active substances. Thus, reason for its application in animal feed production.
Sapropel is a new technology used for improvement of animal feed mixtures. Sapropel enhanced feeds have the potential to improve animals’ liver and stomach functions, blood formation, and circulation and reduces disease occurrence and increases resistance of animals towards adverse environmental conditions.
Researches had proven that fodder enriched with sapropel lead to increased efficiency of nutrient uptake and digestion in pigs. Another research had proven that cattle fed with basal diet without or with sapropel, on average, the daily body weight gain increased to 532 and 445 g without or with sapropel.

USE OF SAPROPEL AS ORGANIC FERTILIZER
Different types of organic fertilizers used by farmers to increase their production include; manure, compost, neem extracts and vermicompost etc. Sapropel, a new technology has emerge for use in agricultural crop production. Although the use of natural organic fertilizers such as peat, sapropel, and brown coal has increased during the last decades, but not yet gain popularity all over the world. Most developed countries has adopted this technology while developing countries are still at disadvantage in the use of this technology. With this, limited data on the use of sapropel technology are available in many countries especially those with tropical climates like Africa.
Sapropel, a rich source of soil organic matter, stimulate microbiological activity, and contain plenty of mineral nutrients that when incorporated into the soil , act as a fertilizer rich nutrient source.

In conclusion, the world is becoming increasingly concerned about food insecurity, low crop yield, soil degradation, desertification, and environmental pollution etc. In developed nations, advancement in technology has help proffer solutions to most of these major problems compared to developing nations, particularly amid resource-poor farmers who do do not have adequate resources or source for capital to meet their farming needs.
The basic principles of good farming practices can also help reduce some of these problems of land degradation, decreasing soil fertility, and rapidly declining production levels that occur in large parts of the world. Biological fertilizers also play a crucial role in productivity and sustainability of soil and also in environmental protection as they are eco-friendly and cost-effective inputs to the farmers; therefore, using biological and organic fertilizers, which are low-input systems, can help in achieving sustainability of farms. Sapropel can be considered as a valuable resource with wide application possibilities in agriculture to enhance soil productivity, crop productivity, and quality. It is rich in organic matter, enriched in sulphides, such as pyrite or Fe-monosulphides and lots more. 

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Grapes (Vitis spp), should not be confused with  Grapefruit. Grape fruit is a citrus. While grape is a fruits of the Vitaceae family and genus Vitis. It is a berry, formed on a  deciduous  woody vines of the flowering grape plant. Viticulture is the cultivation of grapes. Grapes are a non-climacteric type of fruit, generally occurring in clusters.
The Grapes fruits may be “Black” (dark blue), red, green, crimson, yellow, orange, pink and “white” (light green) in colour.
Grapes are widely cultivated all over the world. But today, Italy, France, and the United States are the world’s top producers of grapes.
The fruit can be used as human food by eaten fresh or in dried form (as  raisins,  currants and sultanas). It also hold cultural significance in many parts of the world, particularly for their role in winemaking. Other grape-derived products include various types of jam, juice, vinegar and oil.

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy. 288 kJ (69 kcal)
Carbohydrates 18.1 g
Sugars. 15.48 g
Dietary fiber. 0.9 g
Fat. 0.16 g
Protein. 0.72 g
Vitamins and minerals
Cholesterol. 0g
Sodium 2 mg
Dietary fiber. 0.9 g
Total sugars 15.5 g N/A
Added sugars. 0g
Protein 0.72 g
Vitamin D 0g
Vitamin C. 3.2 mg
Calcium 10 mg
Iron 0.36 mg
Potassium. 181 mg
Water. 81 g

DESCRIPTION OF GRAPE PLANT
Grapes are a type of fruit that grow in clusters of 15 to 300. “White” grapes are actually green in colour and are evolutionarily derived from the purple grape. Mutations in two regulatory genes of white grapes turn off production of anthocyanins, which are responsible for the colour of purple grapes. Anthocyanins and other pigment chemicals of the larger family of polyphenols in purple grapes are responsible for the varying shades of purple in red wines. Grapes are typically an ellipsoid shape resembling a prolate spheroid.
THE PLANT: The grape plant is made up of fruit-bearing vines, leaves, roots and fruits etc.
The grape plant is usually a woody vine, climbing by means of tendrils (modified branches) and when untrained often reaching a length of 17 metres (56 feet) or more. In arid regions it may form an almost erect shrub.
THE LEAVE: The edible  leaves  are alternate, palmately lobed, and always tooth-edged.
FLOWERS: Small greenish  flowers, in clusters, precede the fruit.
FRUITS: The fruits are called grapes. They vary in colour from almost black to green, red, blue, purple, pink, or amber. Botanically, the fruit is a berry, more or less globular, within the juicy pulp of which lie the seeds. In many varieties the fruit develops a whitish powdery coating, or bloom.

GRAPE CULTIVARS AND VARIETY
Majorly, there are two types of grapes: wine grapes and table grapes. Wine grapes are further divided into two types: white grapes and red grapes.

CLASSIFICATION OF GRAPE CULTIVERS
There are three basic types of grapes based on their native location:
American, European, and Muscadine. Also are hybrids ( for example Zestful grapes) made by combining American and European varieties. The Zestful varieties are of different kinds. They include lollypop, waterfall, gold chalic,chalice, catawba, Niagara etc. all with different characteristics.
To choose a variety suitable for an area, farmers must carefully select according to their USDA zone. Some varieties like cooler temperatures, while others thrive in the heat. It is important to consult local Independent Garden Center for the best varieties that suit a particular area and needs.

AMERICAN (Vitis labrusca) GRAPES: These grapes are the most cold-hardy (USDA zones 4-7), native to the NorthEastern part of the United States and Canada. They thrive in short-season growing areas. They are also called the North American table grapes and grape juice grapevines (including the Concord cultivar).
They are most often used for table grapes, juices, wine and jellies.
EUROPEAN (Vitis vinifera) GRAPES: Most domesticated grapes come from  cultivars  of Vitis vinifera. It is native to the Mediterranean and Central Asia. These grapes prefer a warm and dry Mediterranean-type climate (USDA zones 7-10) with a longer growing season.
This grape (Vitis vinifera) is used to produce most standard or higher quality grape wines. There are at least 5,000 reported varieties of this grape, which differ from one another in such characteristics as colour, size, and shape of berry; juice  composition  (including flavour); ripening time; and disease resistance. They are grown under widely varying climatic conditions, and many different processes are applied in producing wines from them. All of these possible variations contribute to the vast variety of wines available. They are also used as table grapes.
Vitis riparia: This is a wild vine of North America, is sometimes used for winemaking and for jam. It is native to the entire Eastern United States and north to Quebec.
MUSCADINE (Vitis rotundifolia) GRAPES: These are native to North and the SouthEastern United States from Delaware to the Gulf of Mexico. They grow well in the humid South (USDA zones 7-9). They are most often used for winemaking, used for jams and as table grapes etc.
Other varieties include:
Varieties that produce minor amounts of fruit and wine which are American and Asian species include:
Vitis amurensis, the most important Asian species
Vitis mustangensis (the mustang grape), found in Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, Texas, and Oklahoma. Cabernet Sauvignon, Sauvignon blanc, Cabernet Franc, Merlot, Grenache, Tempranillo, Riesling, and Chardonnay etc .
It is believed that the most widely planted variety is Sultana, also known as Thompson Seedless.

CLASSIFICATION OF GRAPES BASED ON DRYNESS
Grapes contain around 80% water, raisins contain just 15%. Therefore, grapes can also be classified to fresh and dried grapes.
DRIED GRAPES
Dried grapes contain more fiber and an antioxidant called phenols in dried fruit over fresh, primarily because dried fruits are much more concentrated. They also contain higher amount of sugar and have a higher glycemic index compared to fresh fruit, making them a not-so-healthy choice for consumption.
TYPES OF DRIED GRAPES
There are three classes of dried grapes. They include:
Raisins, currants and sultanas

RAISINS:
In most of Europe and North America, dried grapes are referred to as “raisins” or the local equivalent. In the UK, three different varieties are recognized, forcing the EU to use the term “dried vine fruit” in official documention.
A raisin is any dried grape. While raisin is a French  loanword, the word in French refers to the fresh fruit;  grappe (from which the English grape is derived) refers to the bunch (as in une grappe de raisins). A raisin in French is called raisin sec (“dry grape”).
CURRANT:
A currant is a dried  Zante  Black Corinth grape, the name being a corruption of the French raisin de Corinthe  (Corinth grape). The names of the black and red currant, now more usually  blackcurrant  and redcurrant, two berries unrelated to grapes, are derived from this use. Some other fruits of similar appearance are also so named, for example, Australian currant, native currant, Indian currant.
SULTANA
A sultana was originally a raisin made from Sultana grapes of Turkish origin (known as Thompson Seedless in the United States), but the word is now applied to raisins made from either white grapes or red grapes that are bleached to resemble the traditional sultana

CLASSIFICATION OF GRAPES BASED ON SEEDNESS
Grapes can also be classified into seed grapes ( which are table grapes) and seedless grapes ( used for winemaking).

SEEDLESS GRAPES.
Seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings. Because they are seedless, the grapevines are  vegetatively propagated by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction. It is an issue for breeders, who must either use a seeded variety as the female parent or rescue embryos early in development using  tissue culture techniques.
There are several sources of the seedlessness trait, and essentially all commercial cultivators get it from one of three sources: Thompson Seedless, Russian Seedless, and Black Monukka, all being cultivars of Vitis vinifera. There are currently more than a dozen varieties of seedless grapes. Several, such as Einset Seedless, Benjamin Gunnels’s Prime seedless grapes, Reliance, and Venus, have been specifically cultivated for hardiness and quality in the relatively cold climates of northeastern United States and southern Ontario.

An offset to the improved eating quality of seedlessness is the loss of potential health benefits provided by the enriched phytochemical 
content of grape seeds.
These categories are based on their intended method of consumption: grapes that are eaten raw (table grapes), or grapes that are used to make wine (wine grapes). Table grape cultivars normally have large, seedless fruit and thin skins. Wine grapes are smaller (in comparison to table grapes), usually contains seeds, and have thicker skins (a desirable characteristic in making wine). Most of the aroma in wine is from the skin. Wine grapes tend to have a high sugar content. They are harvested at peak sugar levels (approximately 24% sugar by weight.) In comparison, commercially produced “100% grape juice” made from table grapes are normally around 15% sugar by weight.

CLASSIFICATION OF GRAPES BASED ON SCALE OF PRODUCTION
Grapes can be classified into small scale backyard grapes and commercial grapes.
COMMERCIAL GRAPES
Commercially cultivated grapes can usually be classified as either table or wine grapes, based on their intended method of consumption: eaten raw (table grapes) or used to make wine (wine grapes).
The sweetness of grapes depends on when they are harvested, as they do not continue to ripen once picked. While almost all of them belong to the same species, Vitis vinifera ( table and wine grapes) have significant differences, brought about through  selective breeding. Table grape cultivars tend to have large, seedless fruit (see below) with relatively thin skin. Wine grapes are smaller, usually seeded, and have relatively thick skins (a desirable characteristic in winemaking, since much of the aroma in wine comes from the skin). Wine grapes also tend to be very sweet. They are harvested at the time when their juice is approximately 24% sugar by weight. By comparison, commercially produced “100% grape juice”, made from table grapes, is usually around 15% sugar by weight.

BENEFITS AND USES OF GRAPES

1. CULINARY: Grapes are eaten raw, dried (as raisins, currants and sultanas), or cooked.

2. Depending on grape cultivar, grapes are used in winemaking.

3. Grapes can be processed into a multitude of products such as jams, juices, vinegars and oils.

4. Grape juice can be  fermented and made into wine, brandy, or vinegar. Grape juice that has been pasteurized, removing any naturally occurring yeast, will not ferment if kept sterile, and thus contains no alcohol. In the wine industry, grape juice that contains 7–23% of pulp, skins, stems and seeds is often referred to as “must”. In North America, the most common grape juice is purple and made from Concord grapes, while white grape juice is commonly made from Niagara grapes, both of which are varieties of native American grapes, a different species from European wine grapes. In California, Sultana (known there as Thompson Seedless) grapes are sometimes diverted from the raisin or table market to produce white juice.

5. VINEGARS: Husrum, also known as verjuice, is a type of vinegar made from sour grapes in the Middle East. It is produced by crushing unripened grapes, collecting and salting the juice, simmering it to remove foam, and then storing it with a layer of olive oil to prevent contamination and oxidation.

6. Verjuice is also used as an acidic ingredient in salads and stuffed vegetables

7. POMACE AND PHYTOCHEMICALS: Winemaking from red and white grape flesh and skins produces substantial quantities of organic residues, collectively called  pomace  (also “marc”), which includes crushed skins, seeds, stems, and leaves generally used as compost.

8.  Grape pomace – some 10–30% of the total mass of grapes crushed – contains various phytochemicals, such as unfermented sugars, alcohol, polyphenols, tannins, anthocyanins, and numerous other compounds, some of which are harvested and extracted for commercial applications (a process sometimes called “valorization” of the pomace).

9. SKIN: Grape skin contains Anthocyanins which is a polyphenolics in purple grapes, whereas  flavan-3-ols  (that is, catechins) are the more abundant class of polyphenols in white varieties. Total phenolic content is higher in purple varieties due almost entirely to anthocyanin density in purple grape skin compared to absence of anthocyanins in white grape skin. Phenolic content of grape skin varies with cultivar, soil composition, climate, geographic origin, and cultivation practices or exposure to diseases, such as fungal infections.

10. Muscadine grapes contain a relatively high phenolic content among dark grapes. In muscadine skins, ellagic acid,  myricetin,  quercetin, kaempferol, and trans-resveratrol are major phenolics. Phenolic compounds perform the following functions: antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. They also help plants defend themselves against pathogens.

11. The flavonols syringetin, syringetin 3-O-galactoside,  laricitrin and laricitrin 3-O-galactoside are also found in purple grape but absent in white grape. These compounds help plants attract pollinating insects; combate environmental stresses, such as microbial infection; and regulating cell growth. They have antioxidant properties and may lower risk of heart attack or stroke. 

12. SEEDS: Muscadine grape seeds contain about twice the total polyphenol content of skins. Oil can also be extracted from the seeds. The oil can be used in  cosmeceuticals  and  skincare products.

13. Grape seed oil also contain tocopherols (vitamin E) and high contents of phytosterols and polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid, oleic acid, and alpha-linolenic acid.

14. RESVERATROL: Grapes contain resveratrol, an antioxidant that may help fight disease. It is a  stilbene  compound found in widely varying amounts among grape varieties, primarily in their skins and seeds.  Muscadine grapes have about one hundred times higher concentration of stilbenes than pulp. Fresh grape skin contains about 50 to 100 micrograms of resveratrol per gram. Resveratrol has many functions, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. It also have anti-cancer, antimicrobial, and anti-aging properties.

15. FRENCH PARADOX:
Comparing diets among Western countries, researchers have discovered that, although French people tend to eat higher levels of animal fat, the incidence of heart disease remains low in France. This phenomenon has been termed the French paradox and is thought to occur due to the protective benefits of regularly consuming red wine, among other dietary practices. Alcohol consumption in moderation may be cardioprotective by its minor anticoagulant effect and vasodilation.

16. USING GRAPE LEAVES IN CUISINE (DOLMA):
Although adoption of wine consumption is generally not recommended by health authorities, some research indicates moderate consumption, such as one glass of red wine a day for women and two for men, may confer health benefits. Alcohol itself may have protective effects on the cardiovascular system.

17. Tatjana Zlatkovic/Stocksy
Grapes are highly nutritious, sweet as candy, and have been essential to the good life since the dawn of civilization. Served in fresh bunches, in dried snack-friendly nuggets, or with their essence squeezed and fermented into intoxicating elixirs, grapes take on various forms to satisfy our appetites.

18. Grapes are high in antioxidants, rich in vitamins such as vitamin K, E, C, B1 and B2, which are present in lesser amounts in raisins and potassium, to name just a few of the nutrients they hold within them. This means they could have numerous health benefits, such as boosting heart health, and lowering the risk of type 2 diabetes.

19. According to the NMCD, grape seed and grape leaf extracts are possibly effective for addressing symptoms of poor blood flow in the legs, such as chronic venous insufficiency.

20. IMPROVE IMMUNE HEALTH:
Grapes are nutrition powerhouses. They are packed with vitamin C, a powerful antioxidant that plays key roles in immune system health, connective tissue development, and wound healing.

21. Grapes also impact gut bacteria which further boosts immune health.

22. IMPROVE BONE HEALTH:
Grapes are a great source of vitamin K, which helps with blood clotting and maintaining healthy bones.

23. PROTECTION AGAINST OXIDATIVE STRESS:
Grapes are also rich in antioxidants, which help protect the body’s cells against oxidative stress, a mechanism linked to cancer, heart disease, and Alzheimer’s disease. In particular, certain types of grape, such as pearl black grapes and summer black grapes are especially high in antioxidants.

24. IMPROVE KIDNEY FUNCTION:
Grapes are really high in potassium, which is important for kidney function.

25. Low potassium levels are also a concern across America, as it’s a nutrient that people generally are not getting enough of. Grapes can help potassium levels with some grapes.

26. LOWER BLOOD PRESSURE AND BOOST HEART HEALTH:
A 2019 review of 15 studies involving 825 participants suggested that grape seed extract might help lower levels of LDL cholesterol, total cholesterol, triglycerides, and the inflammatory marker C-reactive protein. The individual studies, however, were small in size, which could affect the interpretation of the results.
Another study from 2022 also found that many of the bioactive compounds in grapes could mean they are good for lowering blood pressure. Some of these compounds may lower the amount of molecules that cause vasoconstriction, which is when the blood vessels tighten, and can lead to higher blood pressure. Researchers concluded that more studies are needed to draw conclusions.
Researchers also note that neither of these studies involved whole grapes, but used grape extract.

27. LOWER THE RISK OF TYPE 2 DIABETES:
Blueberries, darker grapes, and apples are all rich in the pigment anthocyanin, a flavonoid with antioxidant properties. Additionally, grapes have a medium glycemic load (a measure of food’s ability to raise blood glucose) of 11 per serving. Eaten in moderation, they can be part of a healthy diet and help with blood sugar control.

28. WEIGHT LOSS:
While grapes don’t actually affect any physiological mechanisms that could promote weight loss directly, swapping unhealthy sweet treats like cookies and candy for fruits like grapes, is an excellent way to help manage body weight.

29. As sweet-tasting as grapes are, 10 of them contain only 34 calories and 9 g of carbohydrates (2 and 3 percent, respectively), of human daily value based on a diet of 2,000 calories and 300 g of carbs per day. therefore, grapes are great fiber-rich substitute for junk-food snacks or sugary drinks.

30. People use grape for poor circulation that can cause the legs to swell (chronic venous insufficiency or CVI). Taking grape seed extract or proanthocyanidin, a chemical in grape seeds, by mouth seems to reduce symptoms of CVI such as tired or heavy legs and pain.

31. It is also used for eye stress, high cholesterol, obesity, and many other conditions. But there is no good scientific evidence to support most of these uses.

32. As medicine, whole grape extracts, grape seed extracts, grape leaf or vine extracts, grape juices, and grape pomaces have been used. Grape seed and grape vine extracts are also used in creams, ointments, and sprays.

33. When applied to the skin: Grape seed oil is possibly safe when used for up to 3 weeks. There isn’t enough reliable information to know if other parts of grape are safe to use

34. Tartaric acid occurs naturally in fruits such as grapes (Vitis). Tartaric acid is a good acidulant in food, providing a tart flavor and lowering the pH level of products, often used in baking to enhance leavening and as a preservative due to its acidity-regulating properties; it also acts as an antioxidant and flavor enhancer in various food applications

35. Grapes contain such minerals as  calcium  and  phosphorus and are a source of vitamin A.

36. All grapes contain  sugar  (glucose and fructose) in varying quantities depending upon the variety. Those having the most glucose are the most readily fermented.
SIDE EFFECTS OF CONSUMING GRAPES

1. GRAPE AND RAISIN TOXICITY IN DOGS:
The consumption of grapes and raisins presents a potential health threat to dogs. Their toxicity to dogs can cause the animal to develop acute kidney failure (the sudden development of kidney failure) with anuria (a lack of urine production) and may be fatal.

2. POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE FOR HAY FEVER: Some people believe that grape reduces allergy symptoms. This is a misconception, taking grape seed extract by mouth does not seem to decrease seasonal allergy symptoms or the need to use allergymedications.

3. NAUSEA AND VOMITING CAUSED BY CANCER DRUG TREATMENT: Drinking grape juice 30 minutes before meals for a week following each cycle of chemotherapy does not seem to reduce nausea or vomiting caused by chemotherapy.

4. OVERACTIVE BLADDER: Drinking grape juice does not seem to improve overactive bladder in older males.

5. BREAST PAIN (MASTALGIA): Taking proanthocyanidin, a chemical found in grape seed extract, does not reduce breast tissue hardness, pain, or tenderness in people treated with radiation therapy for breast cancer.

6. OBESITY: Drinking grape juice or taking grape seed extract does not seem to reduce weight in overweight people. But it might help lower cholesterol and control blood sugar.

7. Eating large quantities of grapes might cause diarrhea. 8. Some people have allergic reactions to grapes and grape products. Some other side effects might include cough, dry mouth, and headache.

8. CHILDREN: Grapes are commonly consumed in foods. But keep in mind that whole grapes are a potential choking hazard for children aged 5 years and younger. Whole grapes should be cut in half or quartered before being served to children. There is not enough reliable information to know if grape is safe to use in amounts greater than those found in foods.

9. BLEEDING CONDITIONS: Grape extract might slow blood clotting. Taking grape extract might increase the chances of bruising and bleeding in people with bleeding conditions. But it is not clear if this is a big concern.

10. SURGERY: Grape extract might slow blood clotting. It might cause extra bleeding during and after surgery. Do not use grape extract at least 2 weeks before a scheduled surgery.
GRAPE COMBINATION WITH DRUGS

11. Some medications are changed and broken down by the liver. Grape might change how quickly the liver breaks down these medications. This could change the effects and side effects of these medications. For example, the liver can change the effect of Cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) substrates, Cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) substrates, Cytochrome P450 2C9 (CYP2C9) substrates and Cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) substrates, as they interact with GRAPE

12. PHENACETIN INTERACTS WITH GRAPE:
Drinking grape juice might increase how quickly the body breaks down phenacetin. Taking phenacetin along with grape juice might decrease the effects of phenacetin.

13. MEDICATIONS THAT SLOW BLOOD CLOTTING: Anticoagulant / Antiplatelet drugs do interacts with GRAPE. Thus, slow down blood clotting. Taking grape extract along with medications that also slow blood clotting might increase the risk of bruising and bleeding.

14. MEDICATIONS CHANGED BY THE LIVER : Cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) substrates do interact with GRAPE in the liver. Such drugs are broken down by the liver. Grape might change how quickly the liver breaks down these medications. This could change the effects and side effects of these medications.

15. CYCLOSPORINE (NEORAL, SANDIMMUNE) INTERACTS WITH GRAPE:
Drinking purple grape juice along with cyclosporine might decrease how much cyclosporine the body absorbs. This could decrease the effects of cyclosporine. Separate doses of grape juice and cyclosporine by at least 2 hours to avoid this interaction.

16. MIDAZOLAM (VERSED) INTERACTS WITH GRAPE:
Taking grape seed extract for at least one week might increase how quickly the body gets rid of midazolam. This might decrease the effects of midazolam. But taking only a single dose of grape seed extract doesn’t seem to have an effect on midazolam.

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT
Grapes grow best in warm, sunny areas with well-drained soil, moderate rainfall, and good air circulation. The long, dry, warm weather condition and cool conditions are required for their best development. Severe cold weather conditions will destroy unprotected vines. Frosts occurring after the vines start growth will kill the shoots and clusters.
a. SUNLIGHT
Grapes need full sun, about 7–8 hours per day.
Less sun can lead to lower fruit production and poorer fruit quality.
b. RAINFALL
Grapes grow well in areas with less than 750 mm of annual rainfall.
Too much rainfall can cause fruit rot and disease.
Too little rainfall can stunt root development and reduce yield.
c. AIR CIRCULATION
Good air circulation helps prevent fungal diseases like powdery mildew.
Planting on a slope can help keep air moving.
Planting parallel to prevailing winds can increase air circulation.
d. TEMPERATURE
Avoid locations prone to late frosts, which can damage new shoots. American grapes are the most cold-hardy.

SOIL
Large, open, sunny space with good soil are required for good growth of grape plant. They can grow in a variety of soils, ranging from blow sands to clay loams, from shallow to very deep soils, from highly calcareous to noncalcareous soils, and from very low to high fertility. But they prefer well-drained, rich, organic soil.
Soil should be free of waterlogging (grapes cannot tolerate wet feet).
Soil that is too fertile can cause the vine to grow too fast and not bear well. Poor soils can be improved by adding compost or well-rotted manure.
The ideal soil pH is between 5.0 and 6.5, and the soil should contain organic matter.
PROPAGATION
Grapes can be grown in a small backyard farm, in pots and for large scale production on commercial farms. For commercial purposes,
commercial grape varieties are propagated with cuttings, segments or canes, or grafts. Cuttings are usually grown for one year in a nursery to develop roots. The grafts consist of a segment of a stem of a fruiting variety placed on a rootstock cutting. The rootstock cuttings are usually field budded to the desired fruiting variety and are planted in the vineyard. The point of union of grafted or budded vines must be situated well above the ground level in order to prevent the production of scion roots.

SPACING
Spacing of grapes depends on trailers and varieties selected for cultivation.
Grapes need about 50 to 100 square feet per vine if growing vertically on a trellis or arbor. They need about 6-8 feet between rows if planting horizontally in rows. Plus, seven to eight hours of direct sun each day.
TRAINING AND SUPPORT
Table grapes do not need a fancy support system. Although it is good to get them off the ground and onto a trellis where they can easily be pruned and harvested. Wine grapes on the other hand require a horizontal structure that gives them the support they need and allows for proper training.
If supports are to be provide, a support system like a south-facing wall, trellis, or arbor for the vines to trail on.
Training is necessary to develop a vine of desirable form. It is accomplished by pruning the young vine and then tying both it and its growth to the provided support. 

PRUNING
Grapes produce fruit on growth that is a year old. This makes it important to keep a pruning schedule to remove older growth and ensure new growth develops. This is the most important single vineyard operation in grape farming. With wine and raisin varieties, it is usually the sole means of regulating the crop, largely determining not only the quality of the fruit but also the quality of the wood for the next year.
The most common mistake made with grape pruning is not pruning hard enough. Once a grapevine is fully established, there is need to cut off more plants than leave them behind. 90 to 95 percent or more of the year’s growth should be removed, leaving the spurs or fruit canes or both. All unneeded older wood should be removed, and thin out and shorten the year-old wood. Only leave about 2 to 8 buds on a cane.
Pruning should also be done if plant is getting a little wilder unnecessarily.
WEED CONTROL: Weeds can Harbour pests that can damage the fruits of the plant. Also, weeds can compete with the plant for water, nutrients and shade the plant from receiving sunlight.
It is important to removed weeds around the plant environment. Avoid using herbicides like 2,4-D and dicamba near the grapevines, as they are highly sensitive to these chemicals. Also, notify nearby farms and neighbors to do the same to prevent unintentional damage.
THINNING
Thinning can also help the fruit get more sun and increase airflow to prevent powdery mildew. If the fruit is growing dense and shady, thinning might be require.
FERTILIZATION
Grapevines generally do not require much fertilizer, but can be fertilized sparingly. In early warm condition, N:P:K 10-10-10 or 10-20-20 fertilizer can be applied along with a layer of high-quality compost can also be applied to the base of the grapes. This can often provide the right amount of nutrients to the soil for the grapes to grow and produce annually.

HARVESTING
Grapes are harvested upon reaching the stage best suited for the intended use. Wine grapes are harvested when sugar content reaches its highest point, and the skins are covered with a waxy coating, trapping the yeasts that will later help produce fermentation. Delays in harvesting may cause unpleasant aroma in the wine produced or allow bacteria to attack the grape sugar.
PEST AND DISEASES OF GRAPES
DISEASES

1. POWDERY MILDEW: This is the most common disease affecting grapes. It can affect grapes in many ways, including reduced berry size, reduced sugar content, and off flavors in wine. It can also cause premature leaf drop and reduce crop yields.
Its symptoms include leaves appearing dusty or have a white powdery growth on the upper and lower surfaces, leaves curling upward in hot, dry weather, misshapen or cracked berries with blotchy appearance and vines showing dark brown to black blotchy lesions.
CONTROL AND TREATMENT
a. It can be controlled by improving air circulation
b. Avoid overcrowding
c. Use fungicides
d. Water early in the morning to let the tissue and soil dry quickly. Avoiding overhead watering.

2. DOWNY MILDEW:
This is a fungal disease that result in reduced yield, poor fruit quality, and even plant death by attacking all green parts of the vine, particularly the leaves, resulting in symptoms like yellowing lesions, white cottony growth on the underside of leaves, and infected young berries turning grayish and dropping prematurely
CONTROL AND TREATMENT
To prevent fungal diseases like downy mildew, the following steps must be adhered to:
a. Prune the vines annually to maintain proper air circulation
b. Remove and discard any diseased portions of the vine promptly to stop the spread of infection
c. Clean up fallen leaves and fruit in the fall to reduce the risk of disease in the following season.
d. Spray fungicides.

3. DEAD BLOSSOM : Remove dead blossom parts where Botrytis can grow
Other diseases include; fruit rots, such as Botrytis bunch rot, black rot, phomopsis, anthracnose, and sour rot.
To minimize the risk of these diseases, especially with severe cases, continuous spraying is required.

PESTS

1. PARASITES: Grapes are subject to several parasites, including Phylloxera, a vine louse native to eastern America and spread to Europe on American vines in the late 1800s. It causes widespread vineyard damage.
It has being controlled by grafting the European varieties to American rootstock to provide a resistant variety to the parasite.

2. JAPANESE BEETLES (Popillia japonica): These beetles do severely damage grapes by feeding on their leaves and fruit. They defoliate and skeletonize the leaves by eating the tissue between the veins. This can reduce yields and stunt young plants. They also damage ripening fruit, especially early ripened or damaged fruit. Also, feeding injuries from Japanese beetles can attract other pests infestation, such as the green June beetle, and secondary pathogen infections.
CONTROL:
a. Monitor the crops by looking for signs of beetles or leaf defoliation
b. Control the beetles by using insecticides or organic repellents
c. Protect young vines from defoliation. Mature vines can tolerate a lot of defoliation, but young vines may be completely defoliated

3. Spotted wing drosophila
Yellow jackets and multicoloured Asian lady beetles do damage the ripening grapes. Spotted wing drosophila (SWD) can significantly damage grapes, particularly when they are nearing ripeness, by laying eggs within the fruit which hatch into larvae that feed on the pulp, causing the berries to soften, collapse, and potentially drop from the vine, impacting the quality and marketability of the grape harvest. They are more attracted to injured or cracked fruit.
CONTROL
Grape growers need close monitoring of their vineyards for SWD activity and implement control strategies like insecticides or exclusion netting when necessary to minimize damage.
Organophosphate insecticide, malathion also will control spotted wing drosophila, but malathion is very toxic to bees and natural enemies of other pests in the garden so care must be taken to keep the application on the target plant and avoid drift and runoff.

4. BIRDS: Birds like house finches, California quail, Mourning doves, Ring-necked pheasant, Scrub-jays, Wild turkeys and white-crowned sparrows do peck at grapes and berries damaging the fruit. They cause significant damage to the fruits, reducing the yield and quality of grapes. Bird damage can also lead to secondary spoilage from molds, bacteria, and insects attack. 
CONTROL:
a. Bird netting is considered the most effective way to reduce bird damage. Netting protect the ripening grapes from hungry birds.
b. Frightening devices like noisemakers, visual repellents, and scare eye balloons can be used to frighten birds from damaging the grape fruits.
c. Falconry, that is, using prey birds to hunt down grape-eating birds can be another effective method.
d. Trapping can be used to control specific bird species.

SELECTING AND STORING GRAPES
SELECTION
When selecting grapes at the store or farmer’s market, select bunches that have green, pliable stems and plump, firm berries.
The white, powdery coating on the grapes are there to offer natural protection against decay. But if grapes are soft, puckered, or brown in appearance, they are probably heading toward rot or raisin territory.
STORAGE
Store unwashed grapes dry in the refrigerator and then rinse them thoroughly before eating them. They will keep in store or counter for about three to five days, in the refrigerator 5 to 10 days, and in the freezer three to five months.
Freezing them brings out the sweetness, and they make a great frozen snack for a hot day, or a healthy alternative to juice pops for children and adults alike (cut them in half for those ages 5 and below).

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Moringa oleifera is a fast-growing, drought-resistant tree of the family Moringaceae. It thrives globally in almost all tropical and subtropical regions. It is native to Northern India and used extensively in South and Southeast Asia. It is called by common name such as moringa, drumstick tree, (from the long, slender, triangular seed-pods), horseradish tree (from the taste of the roots, which resembles horseradish), or malunggay (as known in Tagalog, maritime or archipelagic areas in Asia), Indian ben (English); ben oléifère, ben ailée, moringa ailée, pois quénique (French), marango, resedá, árbol de rábano, árbol de los espárragos (Spanish); acácia-branca, muringueiro, quiabo-da-quina, maranga, paraíso, paraíso blanco [Portuguese]; Meerrettichbaum (German); zogale [Hausa]; kelor [Indonesian]; mlonge (Swahili); chùm ngây [Vietnamese]; ሽፈራው (Amharic); بان زيتوني (Arabic); সজনে [Bengali]; ဒန့်သလွန် (Burmese); 辣木 (Chinese); מורינגה מכונפת (Hebrew); सहजन (Hindi); ワサビノキ (Japanese); ನುಗ್ಗೆಕಾಯಿ (Kannada); മുരിങ്ങ (Malayalam); शेवगा  (Marathi); ਸੁਹਾਂਜਣਾ (Punjabi); முருங்கை (Tamil); มะรุม (Thai). It is also called the “tree of life” or ” miracle tree”.
The Moringa family comprises of 13 species (M. oleifera, M. arborea, M. rivae, M. ruspoliana, M. drouhardii, M. hildebrandtii, M. concanensis, M. borziana, M. longituba, M. pygmaea, M. ovalifolia, M. peregrina, M. stenopetala), of which M. oleifera has become well known for its use in nutrition, biogas production, fertilizer, etc
Moringa contains proteins, vitamins, and minerals, making it useful to fight malnutrition. It is widely cultivated for its young seed pods and leaves.
PLANT DESCRIPTION
a. LEAVES: The tree or shrub is small to medium in size, the leaves are naturally trifoliate, alternate, 7-60 cm long, with each pinnate bearing 4-6 pairs of leaflets that are dark green, elliptical to obovate, and 1-2 cm in length.

b. THE FLOWERS: The flowers are born on an inflorescence 10–25 cm long. Spreading panicles bearing many fragrant flowers. The flowers are pentamerous, zygomorphic, 7-14 mm long and white to cream in colour.
c. THE FRUIT: The fruits are usually trifoliate and commonly referred to as “pods”. They are 3-valved capsule, 10 to 60 cm in length, and looking like a drumstick (hence the name “drumstick tree”). The fruit is green when young and turns brown at maturity. The mature fruit splits open along each angle to expose the seeds. The capsule contains 15-20 rounded oily seeds, 1-1.5 cm in diameter surrounded by 3 papery wings, up to 2.5 cm long. Moringa seeds contain a large amount of oil.

d. THE STEM: The trunk usually grows straight but is occasionally poorly formed, the branches are usually disorganized, the canopy is umbrella-shaped, with fragile and drooping branches, and feathery foliage. The bark is corky and grey, young twigs and shoots are covered in short dense hairs, purplish or greenish white in colour.
e. THE SEEDS: They are borne in a capsule or a semi-permeable hull. When dry, they turn brownish. and each tree has a capacity of producing about 15,000–25,000 seeds per year.

f. THE ROOTS: The roots are taproot which grows deep into the soil.

PHYTOCHEMICALS PRESENT IN DIFFERENT PLANT PART EXTRACTS OF  M. oleifera.

a. ROOTS: Ethanolic and methanolic substances. Also in the root is an alkaloid called aurnatiamide acetate
b. LEAVES: Ethanolic, aqueous, methanolic , carotenoid and lutein. The leaves also contain about thirty-five compounds, among which are; palmitoyl chloride, cis-vaccenic acid, 5-O-acetyl-thio-octyl, pregna-7-dien-3-ol-20-one, γ-sitosterol, β-l-rhamnofuranoside, tetradecanoic acid, marumoside A and marumoside B,
c. SEEDS: Ethanolic, aqueous Seeds Chemicals like Alkaloid, Tannins, Flavonoids, Saponins, Terpenoids, Glycosides, Steroids, Coumarins, Proteins and Starch.
d. STEM: Moringin and moringinine are the two alkaloids present in the plant’s stem.
Apart from the above, M. oleifera is also a rich source of glucosinolates. The most abundant glucosinolate present in the species is 4-O-(α-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzyl glucosinolates, also known as glucomoringin.
A sterol isolate, β-sitosterol is found in the seeds and leaves. Another type of sterol glycoside β-sitosterol-3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside can be found at the  bark of the plant.
Diterpenes and terpenes are found in the leaves. Among which Phytol is diterpene alcohol, a major component of chlorophyll, and is found abundantly in leaves of the plant. At the same time, terpenes and their derivatives are present in trace amounts (linalool oxide, farnsylacetone, isolongifolene α-ionene, and α- and β-ionone), whereas hexahydro-farnesyl acetone can be found in abundance.
Seed oil extract of M. oleifera commonly contains tannins and saponins. Also, fatty acids such as arachidic acid, octacosanoic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, linolenic acid, behenic acid, and paullinic acid are found in the plant seeds.
Two glycosides, namely niazirin and niazirinin are found in moringa.
The exudate of the gum is rich in poly saccharides such as D-galactose, L-arabinose, D-xylose, L-rhamnose, D-mannose, and -glucuronic acid.

BENEFITS OF MORINGA
Moringa oleifera is classified as an important herbal plant due to its immense medicinal and non-medicinal benefits.

1. It is used as vegetables

2. It is used for traditional herbal medicine.

3. It is also used for water purification. The oil cake resulting from seed oil extraction contains about 1% of floculant proteins that bind mineral particles and organic material in the purification of drinking water.

4. Moringa is an important food source in some parts of the world. The immature green pods (drumsticks) are prepared similarly to green beans, while the seeds, when removed from more mature pods can be cooked like peas or roasted like nuts. The leaves can be cooked and used like spinach, and they are also dried and powdered for use as a condiment.

5. It can be grown cheaply and easily, and retains much of its nutritional value when dried. Its leaves contain more vitamin C than oranges and more calcium than milk, boosting the immune system and strengthening bones. They are also an excellent source of protein, aiding muscle growth and tissue repair. Moringa is rich in iron, combating fatigue, and potassium, supporting heart health. Its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties play a crucial role in protecting the body against various diseases.

6. As an antioxidant, it seems to help protect cells from damage.

7. Moringa might also help decrease inflammation and reduce pain.

8. Moringa is used for asthma, diabetes, breast-feeding, and many other purposes, but there is no good scientific evidence to support these uses.
Research has shown that taking 3 grams of moringa twice daily for 3 weeks reduces the severity of asthma symptoms and improves lung function in adults with mild to moderate asthma.

8. The effect of moringa on diabetes control is unclear. Some early research shows that taking moringa tablets along with a type medicine called sulfonylureas does not improve blood sugar control as measured by hemoglobin A1C levels. But it does seem to reduce fasting and post-meal blood sugar levels compared to taking sulfonylureas alone in people with diabetes. Other research also shows that taking moringa drumstick leaves with meals might also reduce post-meal blood sugar levels in people with diabetes not taking medications for diabetes.

9. HIV/AIDS. Early research shows that taking moringa leaf powder with each meal for 6 months might increase body mass index (BMI) but does not appear to improve immune function.

10. Traditionally, the plant is used to cure wounds, pain, ulcers, liver disease, heart disease, cancer, and inflammation.

11. The pharmacological studies confirm the hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, and anti-inflammatory potential of the extracts from the various plant parts.

12. All parts of moringa plant contain bioactive constituents. Apart from this, it contains more than one hundred compounds located at its different parts. Such compunds include; alkaloids, flavonoids, anthraquinones, vitamins, glycosides, and terpenes.

13. In addition, novel isolates such as muramoside A and B and niazimin A and B have been identified in the plant and have potent antioxidant, anticancer, antihypertensive, hepatoprotective, and nutritional effects.

14. Studies have shown that M. oleifera is among the cheapest and most reliable alternatives for good nutrition .

15. Nearly all parts of the tree are used for their essential nutrients. M. oleifera leaves have a high content of beta-carotene, minerals, calcium, and potassium. The bark of the tree is considered very useful in the treatment of different disorders such as ulcers , toothache, and hypertension. Roots, however, are found to have a role in the treatment of toothache, helminthiasis, and paralysis. The flowers are used to treat ulcers, enlarged spleen, and to produce aphrodisiac substances.

16. The roots are conventionally used to treat kidney stones, liver diseases, inflammation, ulcers, and pain associated with the ear and tooth. The bark of the stem is used to treat wounds and skin infections.

17. Indians use the gum extracted from this plant to treat fever, and it is also used to induce abortions. The seeds of the plant act as a laxative and are used in the treatment of tumors, prostate, and bladder problems. The seeds show promise for the treatment of arthritis by altering oxidative stress and reducing inflammation. Preparations from the plant leaves benefit nursing mothers and malnourished infants and improve the general health of the population. The leaves have been useful for patients suffering from insomnia and treating wounds.

18. The dried leaves have an oleic acid content of about 70%, which makes them suitable for making moisturizers .

19. The powdered leaves are used to make many beverages, of which “Zija” is the most popular in India

20. The tree is believed to have incredible properties in treating malnutrition in infants and lactating mothers.

21. People worldwide have included M. oleifera in their diet since ancient times because of its vital therapeutic values. Various medicines made from the plant are said to have ethnomedicinal properties for curing diseases and have been used for centuries. Approximately every part (leaf, pod, bark, gum, flower, seed, seed oil, and root) of this plant has been used to treat one disease or another. It has being used in pathological alterations such as antihypertensive, anti-anxiety, anti-diarrheal, and as a diuretic.
Moringa is also used to treat dysentery and colitis. A poultice made from Moringa leaves is a quick remedy for inflammatory conditions such as glandular inflammation, headache, and bronchitis. The pods treat hepatitis and relieve joint pain.

22. Moringa is used extensively in the cosmetic industry nowadays, and in ancient Egyptian history, it was similarly used for preparing dermal ointments.

23. M. oleifera ethanolic root extract contains a compound N-benzylethyl thioformate (an aglycone of deoxyniazimincin) which is an antimicrobial and antifungal compund. It can be used to treat the effect of fungal and microbial disease infection. 
M. oleifera methanolic leaf extract may exert inhibition of urinary tract infections caused by Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria such as Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus saprophyticus.
The inhibitory effect of the extracts from the leaves, seeds, and stems have been specified in various fungal strains such as Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus terreus, Aspergillus nidulans, Rhizoctonia solani, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus oryzae, Fusarium solani, Penicillium sclerotigenum, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Penicillium species, Pullarium species.

24. M. oleifera seeds have active components like 4-(alpha-L-rhamanosyloxy) benzyl isothiocyanates, which are believed to also have antimicrobial properties . The juice of Moringa leaves also showed potential treatment against human pathogenic bacteria. The methanolic leaf extract has nearly 99% inhibition against Botrytis cinerea (a necrotrophic plant fungus).

25. The fruit of M. oleifera  contains alkaloids, flavonoids, and steroids, which have an inhibitory effect against the culture of Candida albicans by either denaturing the protein or inhibiting the germination of spores through the steroid ring they contain.

26. Strong inhibitory effects of moringa seed kernel extract were observed for Bacillus cereus,  Staphylococcus aureus, Mucor species, and Aspergillus species. However, it was less effective against P. aeruginosa and E. coli. This indicated that, except for E. coli and P. aeruginosa, moringa seed kernel extract might be utilized to treat infections caused by these species.
A recent study has been conducted, which states that only apolar extract obtained from seeds of M. oleifera  showed anti-microbial activity against Gram-positive bacteria.

27. The results of M. oleifera were observed in methotrexate-induced mice. The study aimed to look into a probable palliative effect of M. oleifera extract on mice. The mice received the extract one week before administering methotrexate injection, and this treatment was continued for 12 days. The result showed that pretreatment with an extract of M. oleifera on mice poisoned with methotrexate could protect them from oxidative stress.

28. The antioxidant activity of ethanolic extract M. oleifera  stems exhibited a protective effect against epidermal oxidative stress injury induced by H2O2 in keratinocytes. The result displayed that the stems showed antioxidant potential, and, therefore, can be used as an excellent and preventive source in animal epidermal oxidative stress injury.
In addition, a research investigated the antioxidant potential of Moringa leaves against diclofenac sodium-induced liver toxicity in animals. The researchers concluded that the extract was significantly effective against diclofenac-induced liver toxicity and, therefore, can be considered liver protective.

29. Bioactive compounds such as glycosylates, isothiocyanates, thiocarbamates, flavonoids, and certain other compounds from Moringa pods have been investigated for reactive oxygen spices. The aqueous extract has been shown to be a potent free radical scavenger against free radicles. Previous studies suggest that the antioxidant potential might be due to kaempferol, which is mainly found in plant leaves. The synergistic outcome of Moringa was observed with piperine and curcumin on oxidative stress induced by beryllium toxicity in Wistar rats. The alcoholic extract of the plant reduced glucose-induced cataractogenesis in isolated goat eye lenses by controlling GSH levels. Myricetin, derived from the Moringa seed extract, has proved to be a better antioxidant than BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) and alpha-tocopherol. M. oleifera leaf extract and compounds, such as isoquercetin, astragalin, and crypto-chlorogenic acid, help lower ROS in HEK-293 cells. Moringa is also helpful in reducing plasma monoaldehyde (MDA) levels in fasting plasma glucose (FPG) concentration in healthy volunteers compared to the individuals fed with warm water. A dose-dependent upsurge in GSH and reduced MDA levels were observed with alcoholic extract of the plant without toxic effect till 100 mg/kg.

30. Several parts of moringa (fruits, leaves, flowers, stems) have been shown to be beneficial against cancer, a deadly disease. The isolated compounds thiocarbamate and isothiocyanate from moringa act as inhibitors of tumor cells. The dichloromethane fraction was found to be cytotoxic for MCF7 breast cancer cells. Niazimincin has been projected as an effective chemopreventive agent in chemical carcinogenesis. Alcoholic and hydro-methanolic extracts of its fruits and leaves have shown significant tumor growth retardation in the melanoma mouse model. Soluble cold distilled water from Moringa inhibited tumor cell growth and reduced ROS (reactive oxygen species) in cancer cells.
Lastly, in a recent study based on computational modelling suggests that M. oleifera contains rutin with the highest binding affinity with BRAC-1 (Breast Cancer Gene-1) .

31. Adding to the list of beneficial effects of Moringa, the various parts of the plant possess fertility and abortion-inducing properties. The aqueous extract at a 200 and 400 mg/kg dose has been found to be more abortifacient and anti-fertility effects. Recent studies on hot and cold extracts of leaves of M. oleifera propose that ingestion of Moringa before, after, and during pregnancy may lead to adverse fetal developmental outcomes by causing rigorous contraction of the uterine wall .

32. Among the numerous flavonoids (quercetin, kaempferol, isoquercetin, rhamnetin, etc.,) present in Moringa, quercetin in Moringa flowers is thought to be accountable for the hepatoprotective effect. Methanolic extract at low dose showed changes in hepato-renal and hematological profile with significant changes in serum aminotransferase concentration, plasma cholesterol level, alkaline phosphate, bilirubin, and serum LPO levels. However, the higher dose of the extract altered total bilirubin, blood urea nitrogen, and non-protein nitrogen levels and decreased the clotting time.
Liver injuries induced by acetaminophen in Sprague-Dawley rats, where the standard drug taken was silymarin, Moringa showed similar hepatoprotective properties in these rats by dropping the levels of AST, ALT, and ALP. The seeds were also found to be effective against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver fibrosis, as evidenced by a reduction in serum aminotransferase activity and globulin levels. Treatment with this plant extract for about 21 days regularly as diet significantly reduced liver injury, and this effect was found due to alkaloid, quercetin, kaempferol, flavonoids, ascorbic acid, and benzyl glucosinolates in this plant.

33. Bisphenols and flavonoids found in moringa leaves showed a reduced level of ulcer index, duodenal ulcer, and stress ulcer in the ibuprofen-induced gastric ulcer model. Moringa extract was shown to significantly reduce free radicals and neutralize the acidic behavior of gastric juice and have a protective effect on the development of gastric ulcer. The presence of flavonoids in the plant has been shown to have a protective effect on ulcer formation by increasing capillary resistance and improving microcirculation, resulting in less cell injury.

34. Previous results have proved that leaves extract reestablishes levels of monoamine in the brain and is very helpful in Alzheimer’s disease, while the in vitro activity of the ethanolic extract of the leaves showed an anticonvulsant effect on dopamine and norepinephrine levels, locomotor activity, and serotonin (5HT) in the brain in penicillin-induced convulsions . The methanolic root extract in mice induced by pentobarbital sodium and diazepam has remarkable sedative effects on the CNS by improving sleep duration. The toluene acetate fraction of the methanolic extract proved its potency as a possible nootropic agent. The leaves have shown good anticonvulsant activity in a phenyl tetrazoline and maximal electric shock-induced model using male albino mice. The aqueous extract of the roots blocked the epileptic seizures induced by penicillin in adult albino rats. The ethanolic leaves extract exhibited anxiolytic properties, which were confirmed in behavioral experiments using the actophotometer and the rotarod device, respectively.

35. The broad spectrum of phytoconstituents of the leaves extract of Moringa has lead researchers to develop a herbal alternative for treating chronic neuropathic pain caused by constriction. The need to limit conventional analgesics for this disease. Diabetic rats inflicted with neuropathic pain caused by chronic constriction were used for the study. Tests conducted before and after treatment with moringa leaves showed that they significantly altered the neuropathic pain condition in diabetic rats. It suggests that the drop in oxidative stress might be the underlying mechanism in treating neuropathic pain and thus could be used as an effective novel source for the same.

36. A significant effect in studies on wound healing after incision or excision was demonstrated for ethyl acetate, and water extract of M. oleifera leaves at a 300 mg/kg dose. Studies reported that in preclinical studies, leaves, seeds, and dried pulp extracts have shown effective enhancement of wound closure, granuloma rupture strength, and reduction of skin rupture strength in the scar area. Leaf extracts have shown promising results in diabetic animals by improving the downregulation of inflammatory markers and increasing the vascular endothelial growth factor level in the injured tissue. Compounds present in aqueous extract have shown a considerable effect on diabetic foot ulcers by downregulating the levels of various inflammatory markers. The researcher conducted an in vitro assay to select the standardized extract with the highest potency, which was then converted into a film for wound healing. The result showed that the aqueous extract had the maximum cell proliferation and migration properties among the different extracts.

37. M. oleifera has demonstrated its significant benefits in hematological activities. A randomized, double-blind study suggests that aqueous leaf extract effectively improves women’s low hemoglobin levels (8–12 g/dL). Another study showed that M. oleifera leaves, when taken for 14 days by healthy volunteers, significantly improved platelet counts.

38. In a study, oral treatment with leaf powder of M. oleifera for a duration of nearly 49 days was found to significantly reduce body mass index (BMI) in rats suffering from hypercholesterolemia. The mechanistic approach behind this was the downregulation of mRNA expression of the hormones resistin and leptin and the concomitant increase in regulation of the gene adiponectin in rats.
A recent study revealed the mechanistic approach for the anti-obesity effect of M. oleifera. The plant significantly improved lipid profile by reducing body weight. It also regulated adipogenesis-related genes, increased glucose tolerance, and decreased levels of hormones such as vaspin, leptin, and resistin.

39. M. oleifera as a promising anti-obesity agent. Various in-vitro findings suggest that supplements of M. oleifera cause direct inhibition of pancreatic lipase, thus reducing the conversion of triglycerides into simple. Moringa has fat storage regulation by upregulation of lipolysis-associated protein and down-regulating the expression of protein related to fat storage. It is also effective in the improvement of antioxidant levels. Besides these, Moringa is also responsible for increasing ghrelin levels and decreasing leptin, producing a feeling of satiety.

40. The leaves of the plant extract have been shown to be effective against the venom of Naja Nigricollis (a snake species) in rats. This snake’s venom contains potent neurotoxins that cause the degradation of phospholipids at the plasma membrane, affecting the normal neurotransmission process and causing hemolysis and hemorrhage. The results showed that Moringa extract effectively cured acute anemia, and a remarkable increase in micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes was observed in rats treated with M. oleifera.

41. M. oleifera play a significant role as an anti-asthmatic agent. A research reported that moringa seed kernels can be used to treat symptoms of bronchial asthma. The study indicate that symptoms and respiratory functions decreased with the use of  M. oleifera seeds. Therefore, it can effectively treat bronchial asthma .

42. Suppositories containing Moringa seed oil showed effective results against hemorrhoids. The incorporation of seed oil in suppositories reduced their melting point.

43. Moringa is widely used in livestock, poultry, and fish production.

44. The extract of M. oleifera leaves was helpful in eliminating the adverse effects of neem oil, which is used in aquaculture as an insecticide to control predators and parasites of fish fry. The researchers concluded that the extract of M. oleifera leaves eliminated the oxidative stress and toxicity caused by neem oil.

45. M. oleifera is rich in macronutrients and micronutrients, vitamins, phytohormones, alkaloids, and flavonoids, which make this plant a multipurpose plant. Recent research has shown that Moringa extract is also helpful in tolerance to abiotic and biotic stress under stressful environmental conditions.

46. Moringa is known for a number of non-medicinal uses, chief among which is its use for poultry, especially in curing viral infections (Newcastle Disease Virus) and other parasitic and bacterial diseases that cause mortality in animals .

47. The plant also serves as an important growth promoter for farmers in the production of tomatoes, peanuts, corn, and wheat in their early vegetative stages.

48. It is also used for production of environmentally friendly biopesticides, which is cheap and easily available and helps in curing various plant diseases .

49. Studies have shown that the total crop production increased by 20–35% by using M. oleifera leaf extract, which is a good sign for increasing agricultural growth at a minimal cost.

50. The aqueous extract of M. oleifera is a source of various minerals and growth promoters (indole acetic acid, gibberellins, cytokines).

51. It can be used as an effective plant biostimulant that could be a simple alternative to the artificial fertilizers and pesticides available in the market.
The methanolic extract of the plant is found to be rich in potassium, calcium, carotenoid, phenols, and zeatin, and when three sprays of this extract are applied on the oilseed rape plant, it is observed that the pods, twigs, height, and number of seeds increase significantly compared to the untreated control group.

52. The ability of the plant to resist drought is due to the plant hormone “zeatin”, which is present in large quantities in the methanolic extract, so the plants exposed to such climatic conditions when sprayed with the methanolic extract of Moringa showed improved growth characteristics compared with well-watered plants.

53. The tree is efficient in removing water hardness and is used by African tribes as a cheap source compared to chemical softeners. Previous reports indicated that a water sample treated with M. oleifera seeds reduced the hardness content of the water by 50–70%, which used to be 80.3 g L−1 CaCO3.

54. A study conducted by several groups found that treating river water in African countries with Moringa seeds reduced colour and microorganisms by 90% and microorganism (Escherichia coli) levels by up to 95%.

55. M. oleifera seed extracts has also been shown to be an effective solution for treating turbidity, alkalinity, and dissolved organic carbon. It is suggested that Moringa could be, to some extent, an alternative to chemical alum used to remove water turbidity .

56. Moringa is a good source for curing plant diseases and can be a good option for biopesticides. Since various plant pathogens affect the plants, Pythium debaryanum-a pathogen responsible for damping-off disease-can be cured by adding leaves to the soil.

57. Nearly all plant part (fruits, flowers, leaves, seeds, roots) is believed to have different properties that can heal the body spiritually and psychologically .

58. Early research shows that adding fresh moringa leaves to food for 3 months improves menopausal symptoms such as hot flashes and sleeping problems in healthy, postmenopausal women.

59. The powder resulting from grinding dried leaves of Moringa oleifera can be sprinkled over smoothies, yogurt, oatmeal, or soups, to enrich the nutrients in the meals.

60. Moringa oil has various industrial applications. It is used in the perfume industry, as it readily retains its fragrance and is not prone to rancidity, and in the manufacture of paints and lubricants. The oil is also used as a biodiesel feedstock.

SIDE EFFECTS OF MORINGA

1. Breast-feeding. Research regarding the effects of moringa for increasing breast milk production is mixed. Some early research shows that moringa increases milk production after one week of use, while other early research shows no benefit. It is also not clear if moringa is beneficial when used for longer periods of time.

2. Vitamin A deficiency. Early research shows that adding moringa powder to infant cereal does not improve vitamin A levels in infants with low levels of vitamin A.

3. When taken by mouth: Moringa is likely safe when the leaves, fruit, and seeds are eaten as food. Moringa leaf and seeds are possibly safe when used as medicine, short term. Products containing moringa leaf have been used for up to 6 months. Products containing moringa seed have been used for up to 3 weeks. Moringa root and root bark are possibly unsafe. The roots and root bark contain toxic substances.

4. Pregnancy: It is possibly safe to use moringa leaves in pregnancy during the second or third trimester. But it’s possibly unsafe to use the root, bark, or flowers of moringa when pregnant. Chemicals in the root, bark, and flowers might make the uterus contract. In traditional medicine, the root and bark were used to cause miscarriages. There is not enough reliable information to know if other parts of moringa are safe to use when pregnant. Stay on the safe side and avoid use.

5. Breast-feeding: Moringa leaf is possibly safe to use while breastfeeding for up to 4 months. There is not enough reliable information to know if other parts of moringa are safe to use when breast-feeding. Stay on the safe side and avoid use.

6. Hypothyroidism: Using moringa might make this condition worse.

7. Some medications are changed and broken down by the liver. Moringa might change how quickly the liver breaks down these medications. This could change the effects and side effects of these medications. For example,
a. Cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) substrates interacts with moringa.
b. Levothyroxine (Synthroid, others) interacts with MORINGA. Moringa might decrease how much levothyroxine the body absorbs. Taking moringa along with levothyroxine might decrease the effects of levothyroxine.
c. Medications moved by pumps in cells (P-glycoprotein substrates) interacts with moringa. Some medications are moved in and out of cells by pumps. Moringa might change how these pumps work and change how much medication stays in the body. In some cases, this might change the effects and side effects of a medication.
d. Medications for diabetes (Antidiabetes drugs) interacts with moringa. Moringa might lower blood sugar levels. Taking moringa along with diabetes medications might cause blood sugar to drop too low. Monitor your blood sugar closely.
e. Medications changed by the liver (Cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) substrates) interacts with moringa. Some medications are changed and broken down by the liver. Moringa might change how quickly the liver breaks down these medications. This could change the effects and side effects of these medications.

8. Feeding moringa leaves to poultry, pigs and fish is advantageous but only in limited amounts due to the presence of fibre and antinutritional factors.

9. Moringa oil seed cake, the by-product of oil extraction, is not very palatable to livestock and mainly used as green manure or a flocculating agent in water purification. Moringa seeds appear to be toxic to rabbits.

As moringa is available in supplements, powders or extracts, which can be taken orally on daily basis, it is important to consult our healthcare provider to find out what dose might be best for a specific condition.

GROWTH REQUIREMENT
CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT:
M. oleifera is widely distributed worldwide . It requires tropical and subtropical climate. It grows at a temperature of about 25–35 °C.  It grows best in indirect sunlight and without waterlogging. It does not tolerate waterlogged conditions due to heavy rain. A location that receives at least 6-8 hours of direct sunlight daily is required.
SOIL REQUIREMENT: The tree grows rapidly in loamy and well-drained sandy soils, preferring a height of 500 m above sea level. The soil should be slightly acidic to alkaline. That is pH range of 6.3 to 7.0.
The tree begins to bear fruit at 6 to 8 months of age but due to different soil conditions in the producing countries, the nutrient content varies from country to country.

WIND: moringa trees are not wind-resistant. The plant should be grown in a protected area and pruned regularly so that it may cope a bit with any stronger winds. The seedlings can be surrounded with a wire mesh, for protection against wind and as a support for the shade net.

PROPAGATION
BY SEEDS: If seeds are to be used for propagation, soak the seeds in water for a day and then plant them at a depth of around 1 cm. Make sure the temperature is at least 20°C, or use a heat mat.

BY CUTTINGS: Branch cutting can also be used for vegetative propagation. The cuttings from the mother tree should be covered with sealant.

SEED INOCULATION: Moringa seedling at planting can be inoculated with a beneficial mycorrhizae cocktail to aid its growth.

PLANTING
SEEDLINGS: transplant seedlings when they are about 15-20cm tall. Space the plants 2-3 meters apart to allow sufficient room for growth. Moringa roots are tuberous and extremely fragile, therefore, extra care must be taken not to damage the root when transplanting.

PLANTING TIME: The seedlings can be planted only when temperatures are above 15°C, even in full sun with adequate watering. They require a warm weather condition.

WATERING
In the nursery, seeds should be watered regularly until the seedlings are established. Ensure the soil remains moist but not waterlogged. A 20cm seedling will need around 4 liters of water per day, evenly distributed around the tree. The first month is critical until the moringa seedlings become woody.

ESTABLISHED TREES: Moringa is drought-tolerant. Water sparingly and allow the soil to dry out between waterings. Please note that if you want to harvest leaves, moringa needs to be watered especially during the dry season.

FERTILIZATION
Once a year, especiallyduring the offseasons, apply compost around the drip line or manure. Moringa trees can grow in low fertile soils, but if farmers want them to grow fast and provide lots of leaves and pods, they need rich soil.

MAINTENANCE / PRUNING
Formative pruning: prune young trees to encourage a strong structure. Remove lower branches and shape the canopy. In windy areas, ensure that the moringa stays compact, as it is very sensitive to wind.
On regular basis, trim the tree to maintain a manageable size and to encourage bushy growth, which increases leaf production. If big branches are cut, use a tree sealer to cover the cut surface. Always disinfect the pruning shears before pruning.

PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Disease resistance: moringa is generally disease-resistant. Ensure good air circulation and avoid water logging to prevent fungal infections.

HARVESTING
LEAVES: The leaf harvest can begin in the first year. Harvest leaves when they are young and tender. Regular harvesting encourages new growth.

PODS: pick pods when they are very young and green for vegetable use. Mature pods can be left to dry for seed collection.

In conclusion, more researches are still being carried out on M. oleifera worldwide. The above benefits had stated few of its ethnopharmacology properties, pharmacology activities, phytochemistry, phytopharmaceutical formulations, clinical studies and toxicological properties. The plant is a rich source of alkaloids, phenolic acid, glycosides, sterols, glucosinolates, flavonoids, terpenes ,fatty acids and other compounds beneficial to human health and livestock. In addition, M. oleifera is also rich in compounds such as vitamins, micronutrients, and carotenoids which increase its medicinal value and consumption as a superfood. Pharmacological studies show that the active constituents of the plant have effectively cured various diseases such as neuropathic pain, cancer, hypertension, diabetes, obesity etc.
As new diseases begin to rampage the world health conditons, more investigation are needed to be carried out to determine the efficacy of the plant as a source of medication in treating the life-threatening diseases such as coronavirus outbreaks, Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), various cancers and other life- treatning illnesses.

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As it is said that biology does not respect borders , so do diseases, pests and pathogens spread are no respecter of any environment and country.
Strong quarantine measures with geographic Isolation coupled with world class research can protect crops and animals including human that consume them from some of the serious impacts posed by pests, diseases and pathogens that are circulating all over the world. The health of every living creatures and non creatures such as human, animals and plants and their environment are connected, therefore, disease transmission is inevitable.
Good biosecurity should be practised at all times, not just during a disease outbreak but before the outbreak should occur. Taking the right measures in the early stages of an outbreak, can help prevent or reduce it’s spread.
Biosecurity is a set of policies and practices that aim to prevent the spread of harmful organisms (e.g. viruses, bacteria, and pathogens etc.) and protect people, animals, plants, and the environment. It can also be defined as the act of protecting human, animals and livelihood from infectious diseases. This prevention practices can be intentionally or unintentionally carried out. Biosecurity, a holistic approach to safety, include policies and regulations to protect humans, food, agriculture, and the environment from potential biological threats intended to harm innovations, standards, and practices that are utilized to secure pathogens, poisons, and delicate advancements from unapproved access, abuse, theft, or deliberate discharge. The term also includes biological threats to people, including those from pandemic diseases and bioterrorism.
For example, in agriculture, biosecurity is aimed at protecting food crops and livestock from pests, invasive species, and other organisms not conducive to the welfare of the human population.
Another example is the COVID-19 pandemic. It is a recent example of a threat for which biosecurity measures have been needed in all countries of the world.
A decent biosecurity program should be provided to address the danger of introducing new infections or disease entry and spread on a farm, stable, in a home or country.
Biosecurity encompasses a range of physical structures, equipment, and protocols that are designed to reduce the risk of harmful pathogens entering the farm and causing disease outbreak. All entry to animal farm must have a detailed biosecurity plan that protect the health and safety of the animals. The term includes biological threats to people, including those from pandemic diseases and bioterrorism.

DIFFERENT DEFINATION OF BIOSECURITY BY DIFFERENT COUNTRIES AND ORGANIZATIONS
Various disciplines, professions, organizations and countries have different definitions for the term “biosecurity”. The definition have sometimes been broadened to embrace other concepts, and it is used for different purposes in different contexts. The term was first used by the agricultural and environmental communities to describe various preventive measures taken against threats from naturally occurring diseases and pests. Later the term expanded to introduced species.
In 2010, Australia and New Zealand incorporated this definition within their legislation.
In 2001, the United State National Association of State Departments of Agriculture (NASDA) defined biosecurity as “the sum of risk management practices in defense against biological threats”, and its main goal as “protect(ing) against the risk posed by disease and organisms”.
In 2006, the National Academy of Sciences defined biosecurity as “security against the inadvertent, inappropriate, or intentional malicious or malevolent use of potentially dangerous biological agents or biotechnology, including the development, production, stockpiling, or use of biological weapons as well as outbreaks of newly emergent and epidemic disease”.
In Encyclopedia of Microbiology (Third Edition), 2009. Biosecurity was defined as the process of keeping potentially dangerous  microorganisms out of the hands of individuals who want to use them for nefarious purposes.
In 2010, the World Health Organization (WHO), in her information note describe biosecurity as a strategic and integrated approach to analysing and managing relevant risks to human, animal and plant life and health and associated risks for the environment. In another document, it describes the aim of biosecurity being “to enhance the ability to protect human health, agricultural production systems, and the people and industries that depend on them”, with the overarching goal being “to prevent, control and/or manage risks to life and health as appropriate to the particular biosecurity sector”.
In the US, the National Science Advisory Board on Biosecurity was created in 2004 to provide biosecurity oversight of “dual-use research”, defined as “biological research.
In Veterinary Medicine (Eleventh Edition), 2017.
Biosecurity was defined as “the outcome of all activities undertaken by an entity to preclude the introduction of disease agents into an area that one is trying to protect.”. Biosecurity was further defined as the intended result of efforts to protect animals and humans from disease-causing materials of biological origin.
Veterinarians traditionally view biosecurity as the set of management practices to protect animals – livestock or others of economic value – against microbial threat, some of which may be inadvertently introduced by humans. “Biosecurity” takes on an entirely different meaning in international political agreements such as the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention of 1975. Here, biosecurity was refered to as measures to prevent the research and development of microorganisms or their products for hostile purposes. And it is not too far a reach to think of biosecurity as the prevention of infectious disease – and specifically communicable infectious disease – in humans.
The National Academies of Science define biosecurity as ‘security against the inadvertent, inappropriate, or intentional malicious or malevolent use of potentially dangerous biological agents or biotechnology, including the development, production, stockpiling, or use of biological weapons as well as outbreaks of newly emergent and epidemic disease’.
And lastly, the US Department of Health and Human Services  defined biosecurity as the protection, control of, and accountability for high-consequence biological agents and toxins and critical relevant biological materials and information within laboratories to prevent unauthorized possession, loss, theft, misuse, diversion, or intentional release.

GOALS OF BIOSECURITY

1. Reduce the risk of infectious diseases spreading to and among livestock

2. Protect food, agriculture, and the environment from biological threats

3. Prevent the theft or abuse of pathogens, poisons, and other sensitive advancements

PRINCIPLES OF BIOSECURITY

1. BIO-EXCLUSION: Preventing outside agents from entering a facility and spreading among the animal population

2. BIO-MANAGEMENT: Preventing the spread of disease within a facility
These two biosecurity principles can further be divided into the following biosecurity subprinciples:
a. ISOLATION: Confinement of animals in controlled environments to exclude disease vectors
b. SANITATION: Measures to ensure cleanliness
c. TRAFFIC CONTROL: Measures to control the movement of people and animals
d. MANURE TREATMENT: Measures to treat animal waste
e. DISINFECTANTS: Measures to use disinfectants to prevent the spread of disease

BENEFITS OF BIOSECURITY

1. Protects the health of animals: Biosecurity is a proven method that can help to promote the health of flock.

2. Protects the safety of food,

3. Prevents the spread of exotic diseases.

4. Limits the spread of endemic diseases.

5. Biosecurity is a measures taken to protect livestock from harmful biological agents, like viruses, bacteria, parasites, etc.

6. Biosecurity is the cheapest and most effective means of disease control available.

COMPONENTS OF BIOSECURITY
In general, there are three major components of biosecurity. They include:

1. Isolation

2. Traffic Control

3. Sanitation

1. Isolation refers to the confinement of animals within a controlled environment.

2. Traffic control is not only about the supply of birds and goods, but also about the visits of people to the farm and the traffic patterns within the farm.

3. Sanitation addresses the cleaning and disinfection of materials, equipment and people entering the farm, and the “clean” way of working on the farm.

SOME BIOSECURITY MEASURES
Agriculturist, biologist, laboratories, and countries etc uses various biosecurity measures to counter biosecurity risks. Such biosecurity measures include compulsory terms such as;

a. QUARANTINE: These are put in place by countries to minimise the risk of invasive pests or diseases arriving at a specific location that could damage crops and livestock as well as the wider environment.
Quarantine simply means separating newly arrived animals from the main farm.
The term is today taken to include managing biological threats to people, industries or environment. These may be from foreign or endemic organisms ( organisms that are consistently present but limited to a particular region), but they can also extend to pandemic diseases (this is when a new disease or new strain of an existing disease spreads worldwide. For example, Viral respiratory diseases, such as new influenza viruses or COVID-19 ) and the threat of bioterrorism, both of which pose threats to public health.
b. BIOEXCLUSION: Preventing the introduction of disease by keeping out new pathogens
c. BIOCONTAINMENT: Preventing the spread of disease within or between groups of animals
d. GOOD HYGIENE: Maintaining good hygiene practices
e. SEGREGATION OF SPECIES: Separating different species of animals
f. PROTECTION FROM WILD ANIMALS AND INSECTS: Protecting animals from wild animals and insects
g. WASTE MANAGEMENT: Managing waste appropriately
h. STRUCTURAL BIOSECURITY: Designing the farm layout, perimeter fencing, drainage, and more
i. DISINFECTING: Cleaning equipment and vehicles
j. RESTRICTING ACCESS: Limiting access to agricultural fields
k. STERILIZING: Regularly sterilizing lab equipment
L. BIOSAFETY LEVELS: Implementing biosafety levels in microbiology laboratories.

Some ways employed to ensure that these measures are effective to promote biosecurity on the farm include:
a. Restrict access to the farm and flocks. It is important to keep out disease from the outside surrounding.
b. Limit the number of people that come in contact with the farm flocks. All visitors should always sanitize their hands and clean their shoes properly. They should be provided with clean company shoes, clothes and footbath before visiting in the farm.
c. Limit any possible contact with wild birds as they can carry disease. This is especially true for migratory waterfowl. When the birds have outdoor access, keep them in a screened area that prevents them from any contact with wild birds.
d. Keep predators and rodents out. Enclose all flock properly and consider closing the facilities available during the nighttime.
e. Fences should be buried deep enough to ensure that predators like foxes, snakes, rodents, badgers and coyotes etc do not get in.
f. Have a proper rodent and pest control scheme in place, monitor your traps daily.
g. Provide proper nighttime housing, with proper ventilation. It should be attractive for the livestock to spend the night.
h. Keeping things clean
i. Always keep livestock feed and water clean.
j. Keep an eye on the bedding in the livestock pen. Birds for example are often consuming things off the ground, which could result in ingesting harmful parasites, bacteria or viruses that may have come from an infected bird. Always remove wet bedding and replace it with fresh dry bedding. This also includes when bedding smells bad, is damp or has become dirty. Examples can be found in birds carrying Marek’s disease and the Avian Influenza virus that can be spread through contact with droppings.
k. Regular cleaning helps to prevent the spread of diseases. Apply disinfectant when cleaning the pen. Disinfectants are not effective if they are applied over caked on dirt, manure, or bedding.

l. Vehicles, clothing and other equipment can all carry disease. When the farmer and his farm workers have been in contact with other livestock and birds, they should ensure that any items that could have been in contact with the flocks are cleaned thoroughly.
m. Footwear (shoes, boots, clogs) can be a major source of transferring disease. Always wash and disinfect all shoes before coming in contact with livestock like poultry.
n. After visiting another farm, farmers should make sure that they take a shower and change all their clothes before visiting their own livestock again.
o. When introducing new animal into an existing flock, isolate them first, to check if they have not picked up any new disease.
p. Try to prevent mixing species. Especially turkeys are rather susceptible to fowl diseases.
q. Limit visitors entering the barns

r. Try to limit exchanges in equipment, tools or supplies with other farmers. As diseases can be easily spread by sharing. When sharing is necessary, make sure to clean and disinfect before and after it reaches another property.
s. Never share items that cannot be properly cleaned, such as wooden pallets, fresh litter and cardboard egg cartons. etc

VARIOUS AREAS OF THE ENVIRONMENT THAT REQUIRES BIOSECURITY MEASURES.

1. Animal biosecurity: Any disease outbreak or pest and pathogen infestation can pose a risk to farm animals, other animals, humans, or the safety and quality of a food product. Thus, need for biosecurity. Animal biosecurity is the practice of preventing the spread of disease among animals and to humans. Such animals may be land, aquatic and arboreal animals. It involves a combination of physical and management measures to reduce the risk of disease introduction, establishment, and spread.
It encompasses the prevention and containment of various disease agents in a specific area in the farm.
Biocontainment refers to the control of disease agents already present in a particular area and work to prevent transmission. It works to improve specific immunity towards already present pathogens.
Animal biosecurity may protect organisms from infectious agents or noninfectious agents such as toxins or pollutants, and can be executed in areas as large as a nation or as small as a local farm.
Animal biosecurity takes into account the following:
a. Epidemiological triad for disease occurrence
b. The individual host,
c. The disease, and
d. The environment contributing to disease susceptibility.
The best practices any livestock farmer can emback upon to prevent disease transmission from his animals to himself is through avoidance or segregation. But for animals that are imported and exported across states and country borders, biosecurity measures are needed to reduce unavoidable risk.

TYPES OF ANIMAL BIOSECURITY
The are three Levels or types of Biosecurity of Animals
-Conceptual Biosecurity
-Structural Biosecurity and
-Procedural Biosecurity.
These are the three components of biosecurity program in livestock rearing. These components are directed at preventing infectious disease transmission within and across farms, companies, facilities, regions, countries, and continents.

CONCEPTUAL BIOSECURITY OF ANIMALS: This is the primary level of biosecurity. It is a biosecurity carried out around the location of animal facilities and their various components. The most effective method to reduce risk is by physical isolation. When facilities are to be erected on farms, farmers should give consideration to biosecurity measures around the facilities or farms. These facilities/farms should not be located in close proximity to other farms or public roads, especially when the area has a high density of animal facilities or next to slaughterhouses, live-animal markets, agricultural fairs, or animal exhibits. Other isolation methods that can be used include limiting the use of common vehicles and facilities; limiting access by personnel not directly involved with the operation; and controlling the spread of disease by vermin, wild animals, and wind.

STRUCTURAL BIOSECURITY OF ANIMALS: This is a secondary level of biosecurity. It involves providing physical factors such as farm layout, perimeter fencing, drainage, number/location of changing rooms, presence of showers, air filtration systems, enclosed load-outs, and housing design on the farm.

PROCEDURAL BIOSECURITY OF ANIMALS: This is a tertiary level of biosecurity. It involves routine procedures used to prevent introduction (bioexclusion) and spread (biocontainment) of infection within a facility. For examples, taking a shower or changing footwear and personal clothes with farm-dedicated clothes before entry into the farm, washing hands, and disinfecting equipment at the point of entry.

2. HUMAN HEALTH
Direct threats to human health may come in the form of epidemics or pandemics, such as the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic and other influenza epidemics, MERS, SARS, or the COVID-19 pandemic, or they may be deliberate attacks (bioterrorism). Therefore, biosecurity is a measure used to protect human health by preventing the spread of harmful organisms, such as viruses and bacteria, that can cause disease.
It prevent the introduction of pathogens into new environments and reduce the spread of pathogens that are already present. It also protect food crops and livestock from pests and diseases that could harm humans.

In the case of bioterrorism, biosecurity measures protect against biological threats that could be used for terrorism. It also protects the environment and other living things.
The country/federal and/or state health departments are usually responsible for managing the control of outbreaks and transmission and the supply of information to the public.

3. MEDICAL COUNTERMEASURES

Medical countermeasures (MCMs) are products such as biologics and pharmaceutical drugs that can protect from or treat the effects of a chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear (CBRN) attack or in the case of public health emergencies. Or MCMs can be refered to as a biosecurity tool used to protect against or treat the effects of a biological, chemical, radiological, or nuclear (CBRN) attack. MCMs can also be used to diagnose and prevent symptoms associated with CBRN attacks or threats.
Some examples of medical countermeasures used as a biosecurity measures include:
Vaccines, antimicrobials,
antibody preparations,
ventilators, and personal protective equipments.
ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN SETTING BIOSECURITY STANDARDS
Various international organisations, international bodies and legal instruments and agreements make up a worldwide governance framework for biosecurity.
Some of these organisations include : the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) and the Commission on Phytosanitary Measures (CPM) whom have developed standards that have become international reference points through the World Trade Organization (WTO)’s Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement), created in 1995. This agreement requires all members of the WTO to consider all import requests concerning agricultural products from other countries. These measures covered by the agreement aim at the protection of human, animal or plant life or health from certain risks.

Other important global and regional agreements include the International Health Regulations (IHR, 2005), the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC), the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, the Codex Alimentarius, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT, 1947).

The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and WHO are the most important organisations associated with biosecurity.

The IHR is a legally binding agreement on 196 nations, including all member states of WHO. Its purpose and scope is “to prevent, protect against, control, and provide a public health response to the international spread of disease in ways that are commensurate with and restricted to public health risks and that avoid unnecessary interference with international traffic and trade”, “to help the international community prevent and respond to acute public health risks that have the potential to cross borders and threaten people worldwide”.

In conclusion, biosecurity is an important part of keeping farm animals and human safe and healthy. An effective biosecurity program will have its positive impact on the economic performance of the flock. As mentioned above, simple measures such as cleaning carefully and regularly, limiting contact from visitors, and being careful not to bring disease home can be taken to promote biosecurity on the farm. Biosecurity is crucial to the success of any farming operation.

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Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata), belongs to the brassica family (also called cruciferae family) or mustard family (Brassicaceae). It is a leafy green vegetable and a fodder plant that comes in a variety of colours such as: green, white, purple and red. It is a biennial plant grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It descend from the wild cabbage (B. oleracea var. oleracea), a member of the “cole crops” or brassicas, meaning it is closely related to broccoli and cauliflower (var. botrytis); Brussels sprouts (var. gemmifera); radishes; and Savoy cabbage (var. sabauda).
Cabbage, been grown around the world for thousands of years is a common ingredient in many dishes, such as salad, kimchi and sauerkraut. It has a long history of medicinal use. Different references had stated its uses for the prevention of drunkenness, headache, stomach ailments, and even cancer.
DESCRIPTION OF CABBAGE
Cabbage is a dense, leafy vegetable. While it looks similar to a head of lettuce, it’s actually a member of the “cruciferous” vegetable group that includes broccoli, kale, radishes, Brussel sprouts, and more.  
All cabbages have heads formed from tightly packed leaves. There are many distinct head types, the most common being: Wakefield (with small, early, white, pointed heads; for fresh market), Red (leaf surfaces are pigmented, medium very firm, round heads; for fresh market and storage); Ballhead or Danish (round, very firm heads, light green leaves; for fresh market and storage); Savoy (some authorities designate this Brassica oleracea var. sabauda) (round, loose heads with crinkled or blistered leaves; for fresh market and storage).
Its leaves can be either crinkled or smooth.

BENEFITS OF CABBAGE
Cabbage, like other cruciferous vegetables, is packed with a lot of benefits.

1. It is rich in vitamins and minerals that the human body needs. It is packed with;
Vitamin K: 56% of Daily Value (DV)
Vitamin C: 36% DV
Folate (B9): 10% DV
Manganese: 6%
Vitamin B6: 6% DV
Thiamin (B1): 5% DV
Pantothenic Acid (B5): 4% DV
Calcium: 3% DV
Magnesium: 3% DV
Potassium: 3% DV
Riboflavin (B2): 3% DV
Vitamin A (IU): 3% DV

2. It is low in calories.

3. It is often referred to as a superfood due to its impressive nutritional content. One cup of cabbage contains:
Calories: 22
Total fat: 0.1 g
Cholesterol: 0 mg
Sodium: 16 mg
Total carbs: 5.2 g
Dietary fiber: 2.2 g
Sugar: 2.8 g
Added sugar: 0 g
Protein: 1.1 g
Apart from these, it also contain salt, and sugar, some fiber and protein as well.

4. IMPROVED DIGESTION: Foods that contain  fiber  are an important part of a balanced diet and support a healthy digestive system. The fiber found in cabbage can help improve the digestive system and promote regular bowel movements.
In addition, the soluble fiber in cabbage has been shown to increase the number of beneficial bacteria in the gut. This is because fiber is the main fuel source for friendly species like  Bifidobacteria  and  Lactobacilli. These bacteria perform important functions like protecting the immune system and producing critical nutrients like vitamins K2 and B12

5. Its protein  is considered a healthy alternative to protein from meats. 

6. CABBAGE IS A GREAT SOURCE OF ANTIOXIDANTS : These compounds help the body fight against free radicals- compounds that can damage the cells. Free radicals are thought to contribute to the development of diseases such as cancer, heart disease, and diabetes.
Antioxidants help reduce the free radicals in human body and help improve the immune system and fight  inflammation that can be damaging to the human body.

7. REDUCED INFLAMMATION: Inflammation is the way the body helps fight infection or speed up healing. However, chronic inflammation is thought to contribute to conditions such as heart disease, stroke, cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, and inflammatory bowel disease. The antioxidants in cabbage help reduce inflammation, which is linked to heart disease and also diseases linked to chronic inflammation. Cabbage also contains a substance called anthocyanins. It contains more than 36 different kinds of potent anthocyanins, making it an excellent choice for heart health.
Several studies have found these compounds as a substance that can lower blood pressure and reduce the risk of heart attack and stroke.
A research carried out in 2013 on 93,600 females, the findings prove that those with a higher intake of anthocyanin-rich foods had a lower risk of a heart attack. This had also been supported by another analysis involving 15 observational studies. The study reported that increased intake of flavonoids was associated with a significantly lower risk of dying from heart disease.
Finally, while too much  sodium in the diet is linked to heart disease, the potassium in cabbage helps the body get rid of excess sodium through the urine. 
It is believed that the sulforaphane, kaempferol, and other antioxidants found in this cabbage plants are likely responsible for their anti-inflammatory effect.

8.  IMPROVED IMMUNE SYSTEM: The vitamin C found in cabbage is good for the body. Not only is it an antioxidant that fights free radicals, but it also helps to fight heart disease, cancer, and even common cold. Vitamin C also helps the body to absorb the iron it needs.

9. STRONGER BONES: Cabbage is loaded with vitamin K. This important vitamin helps the body fight the breakdown of bone and improves bone strength. It is believed that a lack of vitamin K can contribute to the development of osteoporosis and an increased risk of fractures, especially in older individuals.

10. MANAGING DIABETES: Because cabbage is low in carbohydrates and high in fiber, it’s a great choice for those living with diabetes as it can help keep blood sugar levels stable without dangerous spikes. 

11. Cabbage leaves have long been used as poultices for application to tumors, and even in modern times, they have been under investigation as a means for preventing or treating breast engorgement in nursing mothers.

12. Cabbage is can be eaten fresh, processed into a salad-like dish called coleslaw, boiled, or as a fermented and pickled product called sauerkraut. Cabbages are important as a fresh market crop as well as a processing crop in most parts of the world and rank in the top 10 vegetables in both sales and volume in North America and Europe.

13. Cabbage has very firm and small heads used for canning.

14. Cabbage also contains small amounts of other micronutrients, including vitamin A, iron, and riboflavin .

15. It is rich in vitamin B6 and folate, both of which are essential for many important processes in the body, including energy metabolism and the normal functioning of the nervous system.

16. In addition, cabbage is high in fiber and contains powerful antioxidants, including polyphenols and sulfur compounds .

17. CABBAGE IS PACKED WITH VITAMIN C: Vitamin C ( ascorbic acid), is a water-soluble vitamin that serves many important roles in the body.
It is needed to make collagen, a protein in the human body. Collagen gives structure and flexibility to the skin and is critical for the proper functioning of the bones, muscles, and blood vessels.
Also, vitamin C helps the body absorb non-heme iron majorly found in plant foods.

18. LOWER CHOLESTEROL LEVELS:
Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance found in every cell in human body. People with high cholesterol level tend to have an increased risk of heart disease, especially when they have elevated levels of LDL (bad) cholesterol.
Cabbage contains two substances that have been shown to decrease levels of LDL (bad) cholesterol ( soluble fiber and plant sterols) .
Soluble fiber can help lower LDL cholesterol levels by binding with cholesterol in the gut and keeping it from being absorbed into the blood.
In a reseach carried out in 2023. The meta-analysis showed a significant reduction in LDL and total cholesterol with soluble fiber supplementation. Cabbage is a good source of soluble fiber. About 40% of the fiber found in cabbage is soluble.
Plant sterols also called  phytosterols are substances in plants that are structurally similar to cholesterol, and they reduce LDL cholesterol by blocking the absorption of cholesterol in the digestive tract.
A research carried out in 2020 by the American Heart Association reveals that 2-3 grams of plant stanol esters a day reduced LDL cholesterol by 9-12%.

19. AN EXCELLENT SOURCE OF VITAMIN K: Vitamin K is a  fat-soluble vitamins that plays many important roles in the body, one of which is blood clotting.
There are two types of vitamins K: Vitamin K1 and K2.
Vitamin K1 (phylloquinone): This is found primarily in plant. While,
Vitamin K2 (menaquinone): This form is found in animals and some fermented foods. It is also produced by bacteria in the large intestine.
Vitamin K1 plays many important roles in the body. Such roles include; It act as a cofactor for enzymes that are responsible for clotting the blood.
Without vitamin K, the blood would lose its ability to clot properly, increasing the risk of excessive bleeding.

20. CABBAGE JUICE: Cabbage can be processed into juice. The juice is loaded with nutrients, such as vitamins C and K, and drinking it is linked to many purported benefits, including weight loss, improved gut health, decreased inflammation, balanced hormones, and body detoxification. It is also high in antioxidants etc. It performs all the benefits listed above except that it is a juice. Apart from the above, the juice also reduced risk of lymphoma in women.

21.  Cabbage contains beta carotene, a precursor to vitamin A. Studies show drinking its juice results in better absorption of beta carotene, compared with eating whole cabbage
THE NEGATIVE SIDE OF CABBAGE
While cabbage offers lots of health benefits from the vitamins, minerals and compunds found in it, It also have some downside to eating it. 

1. Cruciferous vegetables like cabbage can cause gas, bloating and diarrhea. It’s best to slowly introduce these vegetables into the diet and gradually increase it’s intake. Individuals with sensitive digestive tracts might want to limit cabbage or talk to their doctor. 

2. If placed on a blood thinner such as Warfarin, patients should discuss with their doctor before increasing their intake of cabbage. The vitamin K in cabbage can interfere with the effectiveness of blood thinning medications. 

3. HIGH AMOUNTS MAY AFFECT THE THYROID:
Some evidence suggests that consuming cabbage in high amounts may affect thyroid. Substances called  goitrogens in cabbage can inhibit iodine transport to the thyroid, a process necessary for normal thyroid function.
In additon, goitrogens are found in higher amounts in raw cabbage, so those with thyroid conditions, such as hypothyroidism, may choose to avoid consuming cabbage juice.

4. CERTAIN NUTRIENTS CAN INTERACT WITH MEDICATIONS:
Some nutrients in cabbage juice have been shown to interact with certain medications. Cabbage is rich in vitamin K, which can affect the ability of blood thinners like warfarin to prevent blood clots. It is typically advised to maintain a consistent vitamin K intake while on the medication.

5. JUICING CABBAGE LEAVES MUCH OF THE FIBER BEHIND:
Juicing vegetables removes much of their  fiber  content. Fiber promotes feelings of fullness, maintain gut health, helps stabilize blood sugar, and can reduce cholesterol level. Due to the high fiber content, cruciferous vegetables like cabbage have been acknowledged for their ability to positively alter gut bacteria.
However, by juicing cabbage rather than eating it raw, this may reduce much of its fiber content.

6. MAY CAUSE ABDOMINAL DISCOMFORT IN SOME PEOPLE:
Some individuals may experience gut discomfort from drinking cabbage juice.
Cabbage is a common gas-producing vegetable. It is also high in fructans, a type of carb that individuals with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) often have, causing difficulty in time of digestion. Even with low intakes of cabbage, people with IBS may experience symptoms, such as bloating, abdominal pain, and diarrhea.

CABBAGE AS LIVESTOCK FEED
Cabbage can also be fed to livestock, such as cattle, pigs, rabbits, goats, and sheep. It is a nutritious, easily digestible crop that can help reduce animal feeding costs. In addition,  cabbage improves growth performance, improves carcass characteristics, improves pig health, can help manage diseases like white mold and black rot, and can help reduce environmental impact.
In a research study to determine the the effect of cabbage leaves as roughages on growth performance and bood biochemical parameters of rabbits, the study proved that cabbage leaves can be fed to growing rabbits as roughage source without any adverse effects on growth performance and blood biochemical parameters.
 However, cabbage also has adverse negative effect on some livestock when fed to them. It can cause digestive issues and poisoning if not fed properly. 
RISKS FACTORS OF FEEDING CABBAGE TO LIVESTOCK  

1. Can cause digestive issues

2. Can cause poisoning

3. Can cause bloating and gaseousness in sheep, which can be fatal

4. In cattle, it can cause rumen acidosis due to its high sugar content, haemolytic anaemia and goiter in livestock due to the high amino acid compund in the cabbage.

5. When lamb feed on immature cabbage leaves, a condition called photosensitisation results. This disorder is costly to treat and in acute condition, it leads to death.

6. Cabbage contains a component called glucosinolate. When fed to dairy cow, the component taints the milk produced. Therefore, to feed cabbage to livestock, the following must be ensured or carried out:

1. MONITOR THE ANIMALS:  Watch the animals for adverse reactions that can cause health issues like bloat, pneumonia and nitrate poisoning. 

2. INTRODUCE CABBAGE SLOWLY: Allow animals to graze in small amounts at first and if they are found reacting to the vegetable, withdraw immediately. Feeding ruminants slowly with cabbage will allow the rumen microbes adjust slowly to the roughage.

3. LIMIT DAIRY COWS:  Lactating dairy cows should only eat about 30% cabbage forage. 

7. MANAGE SULFUR: Cabbage waste is high in sulfur, so do not feed it to animals that already eat other high sulfur foods. 

8. FEED IN SMALL AMOUNTS: Feed cabbage waste in small amounts over a few days to prevent leachate. Excess feeding will make the animals reduce intake because of the high moisture content in the vegetable.

9. STORE PROPERLY: Cabbage are highly perishable vegetables. Therefore, their waste should be stored in a bunker silo where leachate can be collected. 

10. CABBAGE -FORAGE MIXTURE : It should be mixed with chopped hay or forages straws to limit seepage problems.

11. It should be wilted in the sun especially when fed to rabbits to prevent bloat.

12. Suppliment the cabbage with iodine, copper and iron to meet the dietary requirements and to prevent rumen acidosis, haemolytic anaemia and goiter in cattle. etc.

FORMS, TYPES OR VARIETIES OF CABBAGE
The different forms of cabbage include wild cabbage, brussels sprouts, cauliflower, broccoli, head cabbage, kale, and kohlrabi.

All forms of cabbage have succulent leaves that are free of hairs and covered with a waxy coating, which often gives the leaf surface a gray-green or blue-green colour. The common forms of cabbage may be classified according to the plant parts used for food and the structure or arrangement of their parts.
Some of the varieties of cabbage available in different parts of the world include:
Green cabbage, red cabbage, savoy cabbage, dutch white cabbage, conehead cabbage, kohlrabi, tuscan cabbage, january king cabbage, portuguese cabbage, brussels sprouts, earliana cabbage, golden acre cabbage, red acre cabbage and Chinese cabbages which include; bok choy (Brassica rapa, variety  chinensis) and napa cabbage  (B. rapa, variety  pekinensis) etc.

CABBAGE CULTIVATION REQUIREMENT
CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT
Cabbage is a cool season crop which requires an optimum growth temperatures range of 15- 20°C. Head formation reduced at temperatures higher than 25°C. It requires adequate amount of rainfall to growth. Moisture levels are especially critical during the early stage of the vegetables growth. If the levels are low, irrigation should be used to supplement and relieve the moisture stress.
SOIL TYPE
Not all soils are suitable for cabbage production. Clay soils or dark cotton soils are poorest for cabbage production. Soils with poor drainage, crack when dry, and flood when wet are poor for cabbage production. The best soil is loamy fertile soil, rich in organic matter, or sandy loam or loam which are well drained and with water retension capacity. Such soils have ability to supply water and nutrients to the cabbage.
Cabbage can thrive in soils with pH levels between 6.0-6.5.
Soil analysis are recommended for planting and accurate fertilization.
CHOOSING A VARIETY
While making a choice on the variety to produce, a farmer need to consider several key factors among the varieties. Such factors considered include: the maturity duration, yield potential, tolerance and resistance to pests and diseases, good field holding capacity, uniform maturity to ensure a single harvest and preference in the market among other qualities.

1. The variety must have wide market acceptability to others.

2. Must have the shortest maturity period ( 90 days).

3. Must have uniform maturity on farm. Not that some are big in size at harvest and others small in size. This will not make buyers to appreciate their non uniform size at harvest.

4. They must have good weight or maturity ( atleast 4kg at harvest).

5. They must be tolerant to hot and cold weather.

6. They must have good resistant to diseases especially black rot disease.

All cabbage varieties vary in size, weight, maturity period, colour and weather tolerant etc.
PLANTING
The best time to plant cabbage in the tropics is when the market supply is high such that harvesting coincides with the driest months. For example, if in 2 months time there will be complete dryness, then cabbage can be planted.
In dry months, vegetables are usually scarce, vegetable consumers only rely on dry season production. During this period, the demand for cabbage are usually high. When the demand is high, the price will also be high. If cabbage are planted in such that they coincide with rainy months, there will be glot and plenty of other vegetables in the market. Thus, reducing the demand and price.
Also, cabbage can be planted 2 months after the high price. For example, if prices are high in the month of January, cabbage can be planted 2 months after. Cabbage produced during this time attract high price especially when there is heavy rain that destroys vegetables. This is common in long rainy months.
Cabbage spend 4 months to get matured and harvested. If planted in April, it will be harvested in July. The best month to plant cabbage in the tropics is in April and November. Planting in November means that there will be little vegetables available in the market. So it can be harvested in January or early February during dry season. While in cool and temperate regions, the best time to plant cabbage in early spring or late summer/early autumn. This allows the plants to grow in cooler temperatures and avoid extreme heat or frost.

SPACING
Plant spacing is important and depends on the variety and the choice of the farmer based on the market demands. The wider the spacing, the bigger the cabbage that will be harvested and vice versa.
Varieties can be spaced at; 60cm x 60cm for large-headed varieties, 60cm x 45cm for medium sized and 30cm x 30cm for small heads. Also 50cm ×50cm spacing can be used.
An hectare of cabbage farm can produce between 11,000 heads to 12,000 heads.

NURSERY MANAGEMENT
Seedlings can be raised in nursery or plant seeds directly on raised beds in the field.
In the nursery, raised beds can be used to raise seedling. This is recommended for root development and proper drainage. The bed width can be 1 meter and a convenient length not exceeding 100 meters and a height of 15 centimeters is recommended.
In addition to nursery practices, the seeds should be sprayed and treated with:

1. Agrochemicals like trinity Gold (452WP)  to control soil borne diseases such Damping off.

2. Pesticides like loyalty( 700 WDG)  to control soil borne pests. And

3. Optimizer 20ml/20L to break seed dormancy and ensure uniform growth

TRANSPLANTING

Seedlings will be ready for transplanting after 4-6 weeks in the nursery, depending on temperatures. Seedlings should be irrigated to keep it wet an hour before transplanting. Seedlings should be planted to the same depth  as in the nursery 15cm. After transplanting, the soil should be drenched using Optimizer. Use Optimizer 10ml/20L to relieve transplanting shock and also to enhance the establishment of the veges. This will also help kill cutworms that can destroy the sea drinks.

FERTILIZATION

The amount of fertilizers to be applied will depend on the soil analysis report and soil type. During early stages a lot of Phosphorus is needed to help in root establishment which will be supplied by foliar feeding. During vegetative stage a lot of Nitrogen is needed and this is achieved through foliar feeding. During head formation potassium is needed to ensure proper head formation. These will help determine which nutrient is needed at the different stages of development.

WEED MANAGEMENT
Optimal production of these Brassica leafy vegetables depends on successful weed control. Weeds reduce yields by direct competition for nutrients, water, and light.
It is important to control weeds early in the season because, weed competition can substantially reduce vigor, uniformity, and overall yield.
Pre-emergence herbicide 2-3 days before transplanting can be sprayed to control weeds.

HARVESTING
Cabbage can be harvested any time after the heads form. For highest yield, cut the cabbage heads when they are solid (firm to hand pressure) but before they crack or split. When heads are mature, a sudden heavy rain may cause heads to crack or split wide open. The exposed internal tissue soon becomes unusable.

PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Cabbage is a host to several pests and diseases.

PEST MANAGEMENT
Some of the pests that attack cabbage include : diamond back month (DBM), aphids and cabbage saw fly etc.

1. DIAMONDBACK MOTH (Plutella xylostella): The larvae emerge from their mines at the conclusion of the first instar, molt beneath the leaf, and thereafter feed on the lower surface of the leaves.
CONTROL: Spray insecticides,
 2. CABBAGE LEAF SAWFLY   (Athalia rosae): Sawflies are sporadic but serious pests of brassicas. They are black/green caterpillars with a black head.
CONTROL: Spray insecticides like Escort mixed with Integra, plant trap crops and plant mints around the farm.

3. CABBAGE APHID  (Brevicoryne brassicae): Aphids feed by sucking sap from their host plants.  Continued feeding by aphids causes yellowing, wilting and stunting of plants.
CONTROL; Spray insecticides like Lexus mixed with Integra.

4. CUTWORMS : Cutworms are recognized by their smooth skin, greasy gray colour and “C-shaped”; posture when disturbed. Eggs are laid by the night flying moths on grasses, weeds, and other host plants.  Cutworms feed at night causing serious damage to stems and foliage of young plants, during the day they retreat to their underground burrows.
CONTROL: Spray insecticides like Pentagon, plant trap crops, plant mints around the farm.

DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Diseases that attack cabbage include black rot, fungal spots, blight, powdery mildew and bacterial soft rot etc.

1. BLACK ROTS (Xanthomonas campenstris): The disease is easily recognized by the presence of large yellow to yellow-orange “V”-shaped areas extending inward from the margin of older leaves, and by black veins in the infected area. The tap root may rot or turn brown with bad odour.
CONTROL, PREVENTION AND TREATMENT:
a. Spray copper fungicides from the 50th day after planting.
b. Use hot water treatment to destroy the bacteria that may be infesting the seeds.

2. DOWNEY MILDEW: This is caused by  Hyaloperonospora parasitica previously known as Peronospora parasitica.
Downy mildew is first seen as a fluffy or powdery-white mass of spores on the undersurface of brassica leaves. This is followed by a black speckling and puckering of the upper surface. Leaves prematurely turns yellow and fall from the plants.
CONTROL, PREVENTION AND TREATMENT:
a. Avoid overcrowding seedlings so that there is sufficient air movement around them.
b. Carefully check each seedling before transplanting in the field, and remove any that show downy mildew symptoms.
c. If symptoms are seen, spray all the seedlings with a systemic fungicide like trinity Gold mixed with Integra.
d. Spray full strength vinegar to eliminate heavy accumulations of mildew.

3. DAMPING OFF: Seeds may be infected as soon as moisture penetrates the seed coat or a bit later as the radicle begins to extend, all of which rot immediately under the soil surface (pre-emergence damping-off).  Infection results in lesions at or below the soil line. The seedling will discolor or wilt suddenly, or simply collapse and die.
CONTROL, PREVENTION AND TREATMENT:
a. Use certified seeds.
b. Crop rotation for 3 years with maize, onions, spinach, sweet potatoes and beans. The seedbeds should be situated in areas that have not had previous cruciferous crops.
c. Plant on raised beds to reduce moisture content in the root zone and provide appropriate drainage.
d. Avoid field operations when it’s wet.
e .Keep nursery/field weed free.
f. Use clean plastic or wooden trays to raise seedlings.
g. Use a low seed rate in seed beds as overcrowding of seedlings favours the disease.
h. Discard all seedlings with wire stem, and discoloured roots when transplanting and plants with bottom rots, head rots and root rots.
i. Solarise seed bed soil for 8 weeks using transparent plastic paper.
j. Drench with  Trichoderma  based products eg Trianum at 1:5 (trianum to water), Rootguard, Trichotech, Ecot. or use Propamocarb hydrochloride based products eg Previcur at 30-50ml/20L, Propeller at 60-120ml/20L at seedling stage and twice when crop matures etc.

4. HEAD ROT: It is caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum.
Symptoms often first appear as water soaked spots on lower or upper cabbage leaves. As water soaked spots enlarge, infected tissue becomes soft, and some outer leaves begin to wilt. A white cottony growth becomes evident on the leaves as the disease progresses.
CONTROL , PREVENTION AND TREATMENT
a. Use of fungicide nativo (tebuconazole mixed with trifloxystrobin) is the most effective. It inhibite growth of the pathogen. Also, carbendazim and tebuconazole can be used.
b. Use of biocontrol agents like Trichoderma viride TV-1 .

5. ALTERNARIA LEAF SPOT:
Alternaria Leaf Spot is a common disease of cabbage caused by the fungal pathogen Alternaria brassicicola.
The most common symptom of Alternaria diseases is yellow, dark brown to black circular leaf spots with target like, concentric rings. Lesion centers may fall out, giving the leaf spots a shot-hole appearance. Individual spots coalesce into large necrotic areas and leaf drop can occur.
CONTROL , PREVENTION AND TREATMENT
a. Use clean seed and practice crop rotation.
b. Apply fungicides as foliar sprays .

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