Water is a nessessity substance that all living things cannot do without. It is important for: Temperature regulation, aid digestion, nutrient absorption and waste removal etc. Sources of water could be from rain, ocean, streams, rivers, well, borehole etc.
When there is water shortage, adverse effects will occur on health, the economy, and the environment. Water shortages can lead to waterborne diseases, dehydration, drought, heat exhaustion and heat stress particularly when accompanied with high or extreme temperature etc.
DROUGHT
Drought is a major environmental stress that can negatively impact plant growth and development, and is a significant threat to global food security. It is a prolonged period of dry weather that causes a water shortage. It can happen anywhere in the world and can have serious consequences on people, agriculture, the economy, and the environment. It can be caused by natural factors like weather patterns, or by human activity.

Some natural causes include ocean temperatures like El Niño( A phenomenon that occurs when the sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean are warmer than average) and La Niña ( cooling of the ocean surface temperatures in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean, coupled with changes in the tropical atmospheric circulation, such as winds, pressure and rainfall), Lack of water in stores, Soil moisture levels and climate patterns can cause drought in different parts of the world. For example, low precipitation over an extended period of time can lead to drought. Also, Atmospheric conditions such as climate change, changes in the jet stream, and changes in the local landscape are all factors that contribute to drought occurrence.
Human activities that can cause drought include deforestation, soil degradation, over farming, excessive irrigation, erosion and intensive agriculture.
Droughts can have a serious impact on people, including increasing the risk of disease and death, threatening livelihoods, decreased water quantity and quality, increased mortality rates, and adverse mental health. During drought conditions, fuels for wildfire, such as grasses and trees, can dry out and become more flammable. They can also impact agriculture, causing crop failure and leading to food shortages ( food insecurity).
Droughts can last for weeks, months, or years, and sometimes the effects can last for decades.

TYPES OF DROUGHT
Climatological community has defined four types of drought:

1) Meteorological drought,
2) Hydrological drought,
3) Agricultural drought, and
4) Socioeconomic drought.

1. METEOROLOGICAL DROUGHT: This drought happens when dry weather patterns dominate an area.

2. HYDROLOGICAL DROUGHT: It occurs when low water supply becomes evident, especially in streams, reservoirs, and groundwater levels, usually after many months of meteorological drought.

3. AGRICULTURAL DROUGHT: This type of drought focuses on precipitation shortages, differences between actual and potential evapotranspiration, soil water deficits, reduced groundwater or reservoir levels etc. It happens when crops become affected by dry spell. And

4. SOCIOECONOMIC DROUGHT: Relates the supply and demand of various commodities to drought. It usually occur when the demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall in water supply. For example, drought that result in significantly reduced hydroelectric power production because power no longer do depend on streamflow rather than storage for power generation.
Meteorological drought can begin and end rapidly, while hydrological drought takes much longer to develop and then recover.

CLASSIFICATION OF DROUGHTS
For a better understanding of the causes of drought, droughts can be broadly classified into three main categories. They include;

1. CLASSIFICATION OF DROUGHT BASED ON THE SOURCE OF WATER AVAILABILITY
A. METEOROLOGICAL DROUGHT: This is a Drought caused by lack of rain in a particular region. Based on the percentage of rainfall scarcity, meteorological drought can further be divided into three levels which are:

a. SEVERE DROUGHT: Occurs when rainfall is more than 50% lesser than the normal amount.

b. MODERATE DROUGHT: When rainfall is 26-50% less than normal.

c. SLIGHT DROUGHT: When rainfall is 11 to 25 percent lesser than the normal rainfall in a region.

B. HYDROLOGICAL DROUGHT: This is the type of drought that result from extremely low rainfall which result in the drying up of streams, rivers, lakes, ponds in a particular drought-prone region.
C. AGRICULTURAL DROUGHT: This drought is caused by lack of rain and loss of soil moisture. Agricultural yield becomes damaged and farming practices become very difficult.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF DROUGHT BASED ON THE TIME OF OCCURRENCE
A. SEASONAL DROUGHT: Referred to a prolonged dry period that occurs in climatic areas with distinct wet and dry seasons. These kinds of droughts occur in well-defined dry climates and wet climates too. This can be mainly seen in areas having monsoon types of climate. To overcome this type of drought, farmers do adjust their planting schedules so as to take advantage of the rainy season.
B. PERMANENT DROUGHT: This type of drought occurs in the driest climates, where the vegetation is adapted to aridity and agriculture is only possible with continuous irrigation. Such areas experiencing permanent drought are turned into deserts and the natural vegetation of the place are completely changed and replaced with cactus, Xerophytes, thorny shrubs, etc.
C. CONTINGENT DROUGHT: Many places may experience drought due to irregularity and variation in the amount of rainfall they receive in a particular season. The same areas may experience a lot of rain in the future. Agriculture takes a serious hit due to these droughts.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF DROUGHT BASED ON A MEDIUM
A. SOIL DROUGHT: Result of soil moisture depletion due to droughts.
B. ATMOSPHERIC DROUGHT: Drought is experienced due to certain atmospheric conditions like low humidity, low rainfall, etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DROUGHT
Characteristics of drought include impacts, intensity, duration, spatial extent, and timing.
Intensity commonly refers to the severity of the precipitation deficit and how quickly it develops. Magnitude accounts for the combination of a drought’s intensity and duration. Each drought is unique, but common features of the most severe droughts that have far-reaching human and ecological impacts include long duration, large moisture deficits, and large areal extent, particularly when these impacts occur during a climatological wet season

HEAT STRESS

STRESS
Stress is defined as an external factor that exert a disadvantageous influence on plants. Or it can also be defined as an external condition which adversely affect plant growth, metabolism, development and or productivity of the plant.
CLASSIFICATION OF STRESS
There are two classes of stress . They are:
A. STRESS BASED ON THE MEDIUM THAT CAUSES IT

1. Biotic stress

2. Abiotic stress

BIOTIC STESS: This is the type of stress that occur due to interaction between living organisms. Or can be defined as biological insults that a plant may be exposed to like pathogens infection, insects, parasitism or mechanical damage by herbivores.
ABIOTIC STRESS: These are Physical or chemical factors that the environment imposes on a plant, such as temperature, light, drought, flooding, salinity, and heavy metal toxicity. This stress occur as a result of different changes in the environment. This stress can further be divided into various substresses:
a. Water stress: Drought and flood
b. Metal stress which result in deficiencies and toxicity of nutrients
c. Ultraviolet stress
d. Oxygen stress
e. salinity stress
All these stress directly or indirectly result in oxidative stress. Oxidative stress is the stress due to creation of ROS (Reactive oxygen species).
B. STRESS BASED ON LENGHT OF OCCURRENCE

1. Short term stress

2. Long term stress
SHORT TERM STRESS: This type of stress is also called low stress. It is a period of stress that last within minutes to hours. It makes the plant to be more tolerant to stresses especially if they experience a similar stress later in their development. However, if the stress is too strong or chronic, it can cause considerable damage and eventually lead to cell and plant death. This stress can easily be overcome by impaired mechanisms.
LONG TERM STRESS: It is a stress that result from prolonged period of unfavorable conditions that can cause significant damage and eventually lead to plant death.  This type of stress causes extreme damage to plants which result in impairable injuries or death of the plant.
Note that Plants can develop stress tolerance mechanisms and adapt to some stress, but long-term stress can overwhelm their repair and coping mechanisms. 

STRESS RESISTANT MECHANISMS

1. STRESS RESISTANT PLANTS: This is a plant that is able to tolerate the stress.

2. AVOIDANCE: Avoidance is a plant’s ability to prevent or weaken the effects of a stressor on its cells. It is a resistant mechanism that helps plants escape the damaging effects of environmental stresses. For example, Plants use avoidance strategies to balance water uptake and loss, such as closing stomata to reduce water loss. This mechanism is of two types. Adaptation and Escape
ADAPTATION: Plants have evolved a variety of adaptations to help them resist stress. Adaptation causes permanent changes in the characteristics of the plant that enables the plants to survive. For example; Hydrophytic and Xerophytic Adaptation.
Xerophytic adaptation include: Reduced/rolled culled leaves, thicker waxy cuticles, stomata in pits with hairs, utilize CAM physiology, and lower growth on ground. Examples of adaptation include: Anatomical changes, Physiological and biochemical responses, Molecular responses, Defensive adaptations and Cold acclimation.
ESCAPE: The plant can escape the stress by growing when the conditions are normal and not growing during stress situation. For example, plants growing in specific seasons.

3. ACCLIMATION: Plants can also adapt to environmental changes throughout their lifetime through a process called acclimation. These are the non heritables with temporary physiological modification. It involves the adjustment of the plants in response to changing environmental factors including processes like osmotic adjustment in the plant. It allows plants to cope with the constant variation in their environment. It involves the differential expression of specific genes in response to a particular stress. Plants can develop tolerance, resistance, or avoidance mechanisms to overcome environmental stresses.
Both Adaptation and acclimation results from integrated events occurring at morphological to cellular ( cellular response) to biochemical ( biochemical response) and molecular ( molecular Response) level.
a. CELLULAR RESPONSES: This is a cell’s reaction to environmental signals, which allows plants to adapt to changes in their environment. This include changes in cell cycle, changes in cell division, and changes in cell wall
b. BIOCHEMICAL RESPONSES: These are the changes that occur in a plant’s biochemical processes when it adapts to different environments. This include changes in osmoregulatory compounds such as production of proline and Glycine
c. MOLECULAR RESPONSES: Plants have several molecular responses to environmental changes which including:
Heat stress response, Cold acclimation, perception of stress signals, altered pattern of gene expression etc.

TEMPERATURE/ HEAT STRESS

Plants can adapt to heat stress in two ways:

1. BASAL HEAT TOLERANCE (BHT): The plant’s natural ability to tolerate heat stress

2. ACQUIRED HEAT TOLERANCE (AHT): It is also known as priming or acclimation. This is when the plant acquires the ability to withstand extreme heat .
Heat tolerance is a highly specific trait, and even closely related species may vary significantly in their ability to tolerate heat
CATEGORIES OF TEMPERATURE STRESS
There are two categories of temperature stress:

1. High temperature stress

2. Low temperature stress
HIGH TEMPERATURE STRESS
This is also known as heat stress. It is a major environmental stress that limits plant growth, metabolism and productivity. Plants are unable to survive above 45°C. Although, pollen grains can survive up to 120°C and the seeds can survive up to 70°C. The CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism) plants such as obuntia and Cacti are adapted to high temperature and tolerate up to 65°C.
Plants exposed to high temperature stress suffer from severe and sometimes lethal, adverse effects. The response of plants to high temperature (HT) vary with the degree and duration of HT and the plant type.
EFFECTS OF HIGH TEMPERATURE STRESS

1. During high temperature, the membrane stability reduces due to excess fluidity of lipids in the membrane. thus, there is disruption of membrane and cell compartment.

2. Disruption of water splitting or oxygen evolving system of photosystem 11

3. Both photosynthesis and respiration are inhibited at high temperature

4. Chloroplast enzymes become unstable

5. High temperature can lead to loss of 3-D structure of certain enzyme.
ADAPTATION OF PLANTS TO HIGH TEMPERATURE STRESS
Plants produce structures to adapt to high temperature stress. Such adaptive structures include:

1. Reflective wax on leaf surface

2. Plants produce small leaves dimension

3. Presence of sunken stomata

4. Vertical orientation of leaf

5. Other structures: Plants can have spines instead of leaves, or develop buds and fruit that drop during extreme heat stress.

6. Behavior: Plants can go dormant to avoid growing during the hottest part of the year.

7. Physiological: Plants can alter their metabolism to change cell water and salt content, proteins, and phytohormones.
In response to sudden rise in temperature, plants produce heat shock proteins.

HOW PLANTS RESPOND TO HEAT STRESS
a.. Plants can perceive changes in temperature through sensors in different cellular compartments.
b. Chloroplasts are considered sensors of heat stress because they change the dynamics in response to ROS/redox changes at the cellular level.
C. One of the best known means of responding to potential damage caused by high temperatures is through the synthesis of HSPs.
d. Heat stress in crop plants has also been associated with an increase in antioxidative capacity with the synthesis of various enzymatic and nonenzymatuvq ROS scavenging and detoxification system.
e. short term response include, leaf orientation, transpirational cooling and changes in membrane lipid composition.
MECHANISMS OF HEAT STRESS TOLERANCE IN PLANT
Heat stress can negatively affect plant growth and production by impacting photosynthesis, respiration, water balance, and membrane stability.
a. Heat shock proteins
b. Antioxidant enzymes.
long term morphological adaptations
C. Hormones
d. short term avoidance or acclimation mechanism
e. High temperature tolerance mechanisms
f. thermosensors

a. HEAT SHOCK PROTEINS:
When plants experience heat stress, they increase the production of heat shock proteins (HSPs), which are chaperone proteins that help repair proteins and maintain metabolic processes. The proteins function as molecular chaperones and regulate protein folding, assembling, translocation and degradation. Examples of HSPs include:  HSP 100, HSP 90, HSP 70, HSP 60, HSP 40 and small HSPs 
b. ANTIOXIDANT ENZYMES
Plants produce enzymes that scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide, hydroxyl radicals, and hydrogen peroxide. These enzymes include superoxide dismutases, catalase, monodehydroascorbate reductase, and glutathione reductase.
c. HORMONES
Plants produce hormones, such as brassinosteroids (BRs), Cytokinins (CKs), Ethylene (ET), Abscisic acid (ABA), Salicylic acid (SA),Jasmonic acid (JA), Melatonin and Isoprenoids. , that act as chemical messengers to help plants respond to heat stress.
d. SHORT-TERM RESPONSES
Plants can respond to sudden heat stress with short-term mechanisms, such as changing leaf orientation, transpirational cooling, and altering membrane lipid composition.
e. LONG-TERM ADAPTATIONS
Plants can evolve long-term adaptations to heat stress, such as changing leaf orientation, transpirational cooling, or altering membrane lipid composition.
f. THERMOSENSORS
Thermosensors are proteins that detect elevated temperatures and alter their structure or activity to signal the cell. They are activated directly by heat and do not require upstream signaling components. They may be made up of DNA, RNA, protein, or lipids. Examples of thermosensors include: Unfolded protein sensors, Phychrome B (phyB), TWA1, and TT3.1 etc.
HEAT STRESS AVIODANCE MECHANISM
Plants uses a number of mechanisms to avoid heat stress. Such mechanisms include: Short-term avoidance
(Plants can change their leaf orientation, reduce water loss by closing stomata, and alter their membrane lipid), Early maturation, Reducing solar radiation, larger xylem vessels, and cooling through transpiration, compositions etc.

HEAT STRESS TOLERANCE MECHANISM
Some major tolerance mechanisms include:
a. Heat shock rotein
b. ion transporters
c. late embryogenesis abundant ( LEA) proteins
d. osmoprotectants
e. antioxidant defence, and factors involved in signaling cascades and
f. transcriptional control
g. Gene expression
All these are essential significant to counteract the stress effect.

a. HEAT SHOCK PROTEINS (HSPs): HSPs are expressed when plants sense heat shock, and they reduce protein misfolding and aggregation.
b. Ion TRANSPORTERS: These help offset biochemical and physiological changes caused by stress.
c. ANTIOXIDANT ENZYMES: These enzymes detoxify reactive oxygen species (ROS) like hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals, and superoxide. They are found in every cell of all plant types. The enzymes include :
Superoxide dismutase (SOD) -( removes superoxide radicals by converting them to hydrogen peroxide and oxygen ), Catalase (CAT)- ( removes hydrogen peroxide by converting it to water and oxygen ), Peroxidase (POX)- (Scavenges hydrogen peroxide in the extracellular space ), Glutathione peroxidase (GPX) -(Reduces hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radicals to water and lipid alcohols ) and others include Glutathione reductase (GR) and Ascorbate peroxidase (APX) etc.

d. OSMOPROTECTANTS: These are small, organic molecules that help plants survive extreme osmotic stress. They are found in the cytoplasm and can help plants tolerate heat stress. They  include proline, glycine betaine, and trehalose.
e. HORMONES: These include abscisic acid, gibberellic acids, jasmonic acids, brassinosterioids, and salicylic acid.
f. CELL MEMBRANE STABILITY: Cell Membrane Stability is the most important physiological parameter often used as a screening tool for heat tolerance. Plants maintain cell membrane stability to resist heat stress. When plants are exposed to heat, the cell membrane can become damaged, which can lead to a number of issues such as ion leakage, increased permeability, enzyme inactivation and protein denaturation etc.
g. GENE EXPRESSION: Heat stress changes the expression of genes that protect plants from heat stress. These genes code for proteins that detoxify, transport, and regulate osmotic balance. Some of the gene expression mechanism include : Heat shock transcription factors (HSTFs) and heat shock proteins (HSPs), Hormone-related genes like MYB, EIN3, LOX2, AOC, OPR3 and JMT, Epigenetic regulation, and Genes involved in raffinose biosynthesis.

ANTIOXIDANT DEFFENS IN RESPONSE TO HEAT -INDUCED OXIDATIVE STRESS

It has been observed that catalase (CAT) , ascorbate peroxide (APX) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) showed an initial increase in activities before declining at 50°C, while peroxide (POX) and glutathione reductase (GR) activities decline at all temperatures ranging from 20 to 50°C. In general, total antioxidant activities is at a maximum at 35 to 40°C in the tolerant varieties and at 30°C in the susceptible ones.
MECHANISM OF SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF HEAT TOLERANCE
. To generate response in specific cellular compartments or tissue against a certain stimuli, interaction of cofactor and signaling molecules are required.
. Signaling molecules are involved in activation of stress responsive genes. There are various signaling transduction molecules related to stress responsive gene activation
. some broad group of those are the Ca-dependent protein kinase (CDPKs) , mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK/MPKs) , No, sugar, phytohormones.
. These molecules together with transcriptional factors activate stress responsive genes.
MOLECULAR AND BIOTECHNOLOGICAL STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT OF HEAT STRESS TOLERANCE IN PLANTS.
HEAT SHOCK PROTEINS
In response to sudden rise in temperature, plants produces proteins called heat shock proteins(HSPs). The proteins are of different sizes depending on the rise in temperature. The proteins can be expressed during heat, cold, salinity and pathogen stresses.
FUNCTIONS OF THE PROTEINS

1. CELL PROTECTION: HSPs help cells survive stressful conditions, such as infection or inflammation. Thus, protect cells from severe damage

2. THERMOTOLERANT: They protect cells from high temperature called thermotolerance

3. PROTEIN FOLDING: Interact with other proteins to create a folding of proteins
and prevent them from aggregating.

4. PROTEIN DEGRADATION: HSPs carry old proteins to the proteasome for recycling. 5. Immune system: HSPs play a role in the immune system, including antigen presentation and tumor immunosurveillance.

5. STRESS TOLERANCE: HSPs help plants tolerate biotic and abiotic stress.

6. REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES: HSPs detoxify reactive oxygen species (ROS) by regulating antioxidant enzymes.
TYPES OF HEAT SHOCK PROTEINS
In plants, Heat Shock Proteins (HSPs) can be grouped into five different families

1. HSP100 (or ClpB)

2. HSP90

3. HSP70 (or Dnak)

4. HSP60 (or GroE) and

5. HSP 20 ( or small HSP, sHSP)

The HSP 70 and HSP60 proteins are among the most highly conserved proteins in nature, consistent with a fundamental role in response to heat stress.
LOW TEMPERATURE STRESS
Low temperature stress can negatively impact plant life. Some of these impacted areas include: cell survival, cell division, photosynthesis, water transport, growth, development, and reproduction.
Some of the events used by plants to help them tolerate low temperatures, including: Gene expression changes, Activation of the ROS scavenging system, and Biochemical and physiological modifications.
TYPES OF LOW TEMPERATURE HEAT STRESS
There are two types of low temperature stress.
a. Chilling
b. Freezing

CHILLING: When the temperature is low for normal growth but not low enough to form ice. The temperatures between 0–15°C can injure plants without forming ice crystals. Chilling temperatures can vary depending on the plant’s tolerance and the air temperature and wind speed.
EFFECT OF CHILLING

1. Slow growth

2. Discolouration or necrosis of tissues

3. Germination: Chilling stress can severely impair germination and seedling vigor.

4. Leaf development: Chilling stress can delay leaf development and cause necrotic lesions on leaves.

5. Flowering: Chilling stress can delay flowering and disturb pollen and gametophyte development.

6. Loss of membrane function

7. Decrease in photosynthesis: Chilling stress can inhibit a plant’s photosynthetic capacity.

7. In chilling sensitive plants, the saturated lipids is higher which tends to solidify at low temperature leading to membrane damage.

8. Reactive oxygen species: Chilling stress increases reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plant metabolic pathways.

9. Chlorophyll decomposition: Chilling stress can accelerate chlorophyll decomposition in leaves.

PROTECTION: exposure to cool but non freezing temperature.

FREEZING:

Temperatures below 0°C that cause ice to form within plant tissues. 
EFFECT OF FREEZING

1. Ice formation in intercellular spaces resulting in cellular water movement towards ice.

2. Shrinkage of protoplasm

3. Destruction of chlorophyll

4. Change in membrane potential

5. Reduced growth: Freezing stress can restrict plant growth and development.

6. Reduced yield: Freezing stress can reduce crop yield, especially during the reproductive phase of the plant life cycle.

7. Delayed maturity: Freezing stress can delay the maturity of crops.
PROTECTION STRATEGIES
Anti-freezing proteins/thermal hysteresis proteins (THPs). They bind to ice surface preventing their growth

SOME DROUGHT TOLERANT AND PLANTS TOLERANT TO HEAT STRESS

1. AGAVE (Agave americana): This plant is also called century plant. The specie is a monocot native to the arid regions of the Americas. It is primarily known for its  succulent  and  xerophytic species that typically form large rosettes of strong, fleshy leaves and they resemble pineapple leaves. Most agaves are monocarpic, meaning that they die after flowering. They possess shallow roots which they use to absorb any drop of water in the soil. Their flowers are spiked

2. PRICKLY PEAR( OPUNTIA): Prickly pear cactus, is a genus of flowering plants in the cactus family Cactaceae. They are known for their flavorful fruit and showy flowers. They are well-adapted to aridity This Cacti specie produce white, yellow or red flowers. They possess waxy skin that protect then from the sun. They also produce fruits. They possess high water storage capacity in their leaves which is spineous and can survive in USDA planting zones.

3. MOSS ROSE ( Portulaca grandiflora): This is a succulent flowering plant in the purslane family Portulacaceae, native to southern Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay and often cultivated in gardens. It has many common names, including rose moss, eleven o’clock, Mexican rose, moss rose, sun rose, table rose, rock rose, and moss-rose purslane. It is a popular bedding plant. It possess beautiful bloom of flowers which are purple, yellow and red in colour. They have thick fleshy leaves that make them survive in places where other plants do not survive. In most conditions, they disperse seeds on their own which gives reasons for their wide spread in nature.

4. LAVANDER (Lavandula spica): The common name is lavender, a Drought tolerant plant especially when established. They provide great aroma that helps cleans the mind and body. They are drought tolerant when they get pass their first year and become hardy. They can also survive in USDA growing zones. They produce stunning blue purple flowers with silvery aromatic leaves.

5. TRUMPET VINE ( Campsis radicans) : The trumpet vine,is also called several names such as yellow trumpet vine or trumpet creeper (also known in North America as cow-itch vine or hummingbird vine), is a species of flowering plant in the trumpet vine family Bignoniaceae, native to eastern North America, and naturalized elsewhere. It grows up to 10 metres (33 feet), it is a vigorous, deciduous woody vine, notable for its showy trumpet-shaped flowers which are orange in coloure. They grow quickly and need to be occasionally cut back. Under shoddy areas, they will do well. Once established, they do not need much water.

6. HEN AND CHICKS ( SEMPERVIVUM): Hen and chicken is a common name for several unrelated groups of plants. The name refers to the tendency of certain of these species to reproduce vegetatively by means of plantlets. These tiny plants are produced by the mother plant, and take root on touching the ground. They are rossetts that grow close to the ground and in crevices. They can survive in poor soils with low drainage.
Some of the general include Sempervivum , Echeveria and Jovibarba,

7. CREEPING THYME (Thymus serpyllum): This plant is also known by different common names such as: Breckland thyme, Breckland wild thyme, wild thyme, creeping thyme, or elfin thyme. It is a species of flowering plant in the mint family Lamiaceae, native to most of Europe and North Africa. It is a low, usually prostrate subshrub growing to 2 cm (1 in) tall with creeping stems up to 10 cm (4 in) long. The oval evergreen leaves are 3–8 mm long. The strongly scented flowers are either lilac, pink-purple, magenta, or a rare white, all 4–6 mm long and produced in clusters. They are native to drought and hot condition areas. For example, meditanaerian. They produce green foliage and resembles a carpet afar. They are good for stone pathways and produce beautiful aroma.

8. BOUGAINVILLEA: Bougainvillea is a flowering plants, native to South America, and in the Nyctaginaceae family. They are woody vines with a scrambling habit. It is an excellent choice for drought, heat and saline areas. It produce red, pinch yellow, purple or creamy coloured flowers. They prefer warm, dry and well drained soil conditions and love heat.

9. BLANKET FLOWERS: They are called flamedazers because they produce a flower with red interior and yellow petal round it that resembles a flame. They can also be of any shade of yellow, orange, red, purplish, brown, white, or bicolored. They are found in wild and some tamed to grow in home gardens. They are annual or perennial herbs or subshrubs, sometimes with rhizomes. The stem is usually branching and erect to a maximum height around 80 centimeters (31.5 inches). They do well in full sun and poor soils.

10. CALIFONIA LILAC ( Ceanothus spp) : This is a nitrogen-fixing shrubs and small tree in the buckthorn family (Rhamnaceae). It has several common names in the genus such as buckbrush, California lilac, soap bush, or just ceanothus. This plant produce small dark green leaves with light blue or white flowers. They do not need water under hot weather conditions.

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A nutrient imbalance in soil occurs when the amount of essential nutrients for plants is either too low or too high or when it is insufficient or in excess. This can negatively impact plant growth and soil health:
PLANT GROWTH:
When nutrients are deficient, plants may be stunted or have a reduced yield and quality. When nutrients are in excess, the plant may lose nutrients from the soil.
SOIL HEALTH:
Nutrient imbalances can lead to soil acidification, which reduces the availability of nutrients for plants. They can also change the composition of soil biota, like microorganisms and insects, which can disrupt the soil food web.
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION:
Nutrient imbalances can contribute to environmental degradation and greenhouse gas emissions. Misuse or overuse of fertilizers can harm soil, water, and human and animal health.
Nutrient imbalance can be nutrient in excess or nutrient insufficient. The build up of surplus nutrients in excess of immediate crop can lead to nutrient losses. This causes an economic inefficiency in nutrient use by farmers and also a source of potential harm to the environment. Water bodies become polluted, air and soil also become polluted, and can also lead to greenhouse gas emission. Some nutrients, like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, are macronutrients that plants need in larger quantities. Other nutrients, like iron, manganese, and zinc, are micronutrients that plants need in smaller quantities.
Some nutrients can compete with others for plant uptake, even when soil levels are sufficient ,while some becomes fixed to the soil. For example, in clay soils, phosphorus can become tightly bound to soil particles, making it less available for plants.
Soil nutrient balance is affected by nutrient management in crops. A poor nutrient management technique results in an imbalance in the soil nutrient status which could have a long-term negative impact on crop production.
The nutrient balance is defined as the difference between the nutrient inputs entering a farming system (mainly livestock manure and fertilisers) and the nutrient outputs leaving the system (the uptake of nutrients for crop and pasture production). Inputs of nutrients are necessary in farming systems as they are critical in maintaining and raising crop and other plant productivity.
EFFECT OF EXCESSIVE NUTRIENTS OR NUTRIENT TOXICITY IN SOIL
Soil nutrients sources can be from fertilizers, soil minerals and organic matter. Soils with excessive organic fertilizer like compost and particularly manure, tend to develop high concentrations of nutrients such as ammonium, calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium. These soils can also develop high concentrations of bicarbonates, carbonates and hydroxyls. This ( excessive nutrients) can inhibit the uptake of other nutrients ( antagonism and synagism ), resulting in deficiencies. For example, high ammonium can inhibit the uptake of calcium, magnesium and potassium.

High concentrations of base cations like calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium are associated with increased soil alkalinity.
Highly alkaline soils tend to have a high pH (a measure of acidity), and many nutrients become less available in high pH soils. As a result, plants may exhibit nutrient deficiency symptoms, despite an excess of nutrients in the soil.
Another issue of soils that receive excessive compost is the potential for increased soluble salts to levels that would cause salt toxicity.

Optimum nutrient levels listed on soil test results represent the range at which plant growth is maximized. Nutrient levels that are above optimum do not improve plant growth. In addition, excessive nutrients can cause adverse effects on plant growth, increase the potential for environmental contamination due to leaching, and represents a waste of resources. In particular, above optimum, nitrogen and phosphorus levels can lead to excessive plant and algal growth in waterways that can degrade drinking water, fisheries, and recreational areas. High potassium can lead to an imbalance of base saturation levels as well as high soluble salts. Also, high organic matter levels can cause poor drainage. Areas where lawns or turf are being grown should have organic matter levels less than 5%. In general, organic matter levels greater than 8% in outdoor growing environments are unnecessary and can cause the issues above.
In high tunnels, soluble salts can accumulate to excessive levels because leaching is minimal.
Composted manure is generally higher in salts than composted vegetative matter.
Raw manure can be very high in salts and ammonium and is not recommended for use in high tunnels.

Other effects of excessive nutrients in soil include:

1. PLANT GROWTH:
Too much of any nutrient can prevent plants from absorbing other nutrients, which can lead to deficiencies. It can also cause abnormal growth, such as stunted or excessive growth, leaf discoloration, and necrotic spotting. Apart from these, excessive nutrients, or nutrient toxicity can affect plant growth by causing Wilting: Leaves may wilt , Defoliation: Plants may lose leaves ,
Stress: Plants may become stressed and weakened, making them more susceptible to disease and insects , Scorching: Plants may look scorched  and
Cellular damage: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by high levels of micronutrients can cause extensive cellular damage 

2. SOIL HEALTH:
Excess nutrients can create high salt concentrations in the soil, which can harm beneficial microorganisms.

3. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION:
Excessive nutrients can lead to leaching, which can contaminate the environment.

4. IT CAN ALSO LEAD TO RUNOFF:
Excess fertilizer that plants don’t take up can be carried and deposited by water into watersheds, which can harm wildlife.

5. IT CAN ALSO CAUSE EUTROPHICATION: If a water body has high nutrient levels it is said to be eutrophic; the process is called  eutrophication.
High levels of nutrients in waterways can cause harmful algal blooms and loss of aquatic life . The high density of these green algae on the water body will block sunlight from penetrating the water causing larger plants under the surface to die and decompose. Apart from this, the sudden algal bloom can die off quickly, decay by the action of bacteria and cause deoxygenation of the water. This is a major problem of eutrophication. Also, nitrate can cause high growth of cyanobacterias in water. Some species of cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae) that flourish under these conditions produce toxins that cause liver, nerve and skin problems in humans and animals.

Eutrophication also encourages the growth of larger plants, such as the floating and invasive water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) which can cover large areas of lakes. When these plants die, they add to the problems of deoxygenation caused by decaying organic material.

6. WATER QUALITY:
Excessive nutrients in water can have a number of harmful effects on water quality. Such harmful effects including:
i. DRINKING WATER TREATMENT:
High levels of nitrogen and phosphorus can cause excessive plant and algal growth in waterways, which can degrade drinking water, fisheries, and recreational areas.
Water that contains large amounts of nitrates is unpleasant to drink and can be toxic to humans and animals. In infants, a condition called
Methohemoglobinemia may result. This condition is also known as “blue-baby syndrome”, it is potentially fatal blood disorder that can occur in infants less than six months old. It is associated with nitrates in drinking water.
In addition, Algae and macrophytes bloom can clog filters, corrode intake pipes, and require more chemicals to treat drinking water.
ii. ALGAL BLOOMS:
When there is too much nitrogen and phosphorus in the water, algae grows faster than ecosystems can handle. This can lead to harmful algal blooms (HABs) that can harm the environment and human health.
iii. REDUCED OXYGEN:
The rapid growth of algae can reduce the amount of oxygen available to aquatic life. This can lead to hypoxia, or “dead zones”, where aquatic life cannot survive.
iv. TOXINS:
Algae can produce toxins that can harm people, animals, and aquatic life. These toxins are released into the water when algae cells die or rupture. Some examples of algal toxins include:
Cyanotoxins: Produced by cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae. These toxins can cause skin irritation, nerve damage, and other health effects.
Dinotoxins: Produced by dinoflagellates, these toxins can cause diarrheal shellfish poisoning.
Phycotoxins: Produced by diatoms, these toxins can cause amnesic shellfish poisoning.
v. LOSS OF SPECIES:
When algae die and decompose, it can reduce dissolved oxygen in the water, which can cause organisms to die. If this happens repeatedly, species may be lost from the water.
vi .LOSS OF HABITAT:
Eutrophication can kill off plants that fish depend on for their habitat.
vii. DECREASED VISIBILITY:
Algae can reduce water clarity and visibility, which can make it harder for fish to see prey or predators.

7. WASTE OF RESOURCES:
Using too many nutrients is a waste of resources. Excessive nutrients can cause waste of resources by damaging the environment and harming water quality.
Excess nutrients, mainly nitrogen and phosphorus, cause excessive algal bloom. This results in consumption of large amounts of oxygen, which fish, shellfish, and other organisms need to survive. It
makes water cloudy, reducing the ability of aquatic life to find food. It can also clog the gills of fish and other aquatic organisms that uses gills to breath. It can also block light that is needed for plants, such as seagrasses, to grow. And it produces toxin that can harm people, animals, and aquatic life
CAUSES OF SOIL -NUTTIENTS IMBALANCE
Two main causes of nutrient imbalance include impoper pH and nutrient level. Other causes include various factors such as: imbalanced fertilization, soil compaction, poor root health, and other environmental stresses.
Lack of nutrients will lead to low soil fertility. Thus, causing nutrient deficiency and nutrient deficiency symptoms in plants. Too little or too much of any nutrient can lead to nutrient imbalance.
The following are causes of nutrient imbalance:

A. IMPROPER SOIL pH: pH is the measure of soil acidity or alkalinity. It affect soil health and some nutrient availability for uptake by plant.
Soil that is too acidic or alkaline can affect how plants access nutrients.
CAUSES OF SOIL ACIDITY
a. High rainfall
b. Acidic rain
c. Fertilizers
d. Weathering oxidation
EFFECT OF SOIL ACIDITY
a. It affect crop yield
b. crop suitability
c. crop-plant availability
d. soil microbial activities
Most plants can only survive at neutral pH to slightly alkaline pH (that is, 7.5 to 8.5)
at pH 5.5 or lesser, Al3+, H+ and Mn2+ becomes toxic , while P, Ca2+,MO and Mg3+ becomes deficient in the soil.

At pH 7.5 and above, Fe, P, and Zn becomes deficient, HCO3 becomes excessive and Ca, Mg and K becomes imbalance.
CAUSES OF SOIL ALKALINITY
a. Drought
b. Weathering
c. High concentration of HCO3
FACTORS THAT AFFECT SOIL pH
Soil pH is affected by
a. land use and management
b. vegetation type: The type of vegetation in an area can have great impact on soil pH. For example, forest land are more acidic than grassland. Conversely, the conversion of both forest land and grass land into crop land can affect soil pH. The changes are caused by
I. loss of organic matter
ii. removal of soil minerals when crops are harvested
iii. erosion of soil layer
iv. effect of Nitrogen and sulphur Fertilizers
Note that addition of nitrogen and sulfur can lower soil pH over time. Soil pH that are too high or too low leads to:
i. deficiency of soil nutrients
ii. decline in crop yield
iii. deterioration of soil health
iv. decline in microbial activities.
MEASURES THAT LIMIT OR CORRECT ACIDIFICATION
A. pH outside the desired range:
a. add sulfur to lower pH
b. add lime to increase the pH
-nutrient deficiency at low pH and toxicity include Fe, MN and AL

Nutrient deficiency and toxicity at high pH include CO32-, HCO3-,AlO4 and toxicity.
Also, outside the pH range, some nutrients can be made available. For example, Al at low pH.
HOW TO CORRECT pH

i. Apply the correct amount of nitrogen fertilizer

ii. liming raise pH of acidic soils

iii. Add sulfur to lower soil pH of alkaline soils

iv. Diversify crop rotation to interrupt acidifying effect of Nitrogen fertilizers

v. Application of manure and other organic materials that has high calcium and bicarbonate.
B. NUTRIENT INTERACTION
The essential plant nutrients must be balanced to ensure plant growth and production. Deficiency of one nutrient cannot be compensated by surplus of the other nutrient. Nutrient interact with each other either synagistically to increase the uptake of one nutrient or antagonistically to reduce the uptake of another nutrient.
Mulders chart can be used to determine nutrient interaction. An antagonize element may be present at adequate level and the plant will not have access to it. The only way to make such nutrient available is to add other nutrients that will knock them out and make them available for plant uptake.

Competing of nutrients at uptake site of the root.
Increase K will hinder Mg, B, N and P utilization etc.
C. IMBALANCED FERTILIZATION: Using fertilizers incorrectly or in excess can lead to nutrient imbalances. This imbalance can be minimized by applying the appropriate rate of fertilizer according to the crop’s demand. Increasing the application of nutrients (NPK) using inorganic fertilizers increased the available nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium contents in soil for for some crops. The use of NPK fertilizers is critical for restoring soil nutrients and closing the yield gap. Soil fertility can also drop along the hills. The drop in soil fertility in the hills is increased by a decrease in organic matter content. Similarly, applying an inadequate amount of K fertilizer over multiple years may lead to K deficit and reduction in crop yield.
D. SOIL COMPACTION: Compacted soil can make it harder for roots to grow and absorb nutrients. Roots that do grow in compacted soil are often shallow and malformed.

Nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are non available to crops in compacted soils due to the following factors:
a. Reduced oxygen: Compaction reduces the amount of oxygen in the soil, which affects the availability of nitrogen. When oxygen levels in soil is low, nitrogen in the soil becomes less available to plants by causing denitrification. Low soil oxygen levels results in anaerobic bacteria using nitrate as an oxygen source. The nitrate is converted to gaseous nitrogen oxides or N2 gas. These gaseous forms of nitrogen are then lost to the atmosphere and are unavailable to plants.
b. Low concentrations: Compaction reduces the concentration and mobility of nutrients like phosphorus and potassium in soil solutions. It can reduce the mobility of phosphorus and potassium in soil by making the soil less porous, which limits the movement of nutrients. Compaction can also restrict root growth. Roots are less able to penetrate the soil, thus, limiting their ability to access nutrients and moisture. Compaction can also interfere with drainage. It can cause extended periods of saturation and also reduce permeability (As soil is compacted, the void ratio decreases, reducing permeability).
Soil compaction do affect the soil physical properties and plant growth, and through the effects on aeration all biological soil processes are affected

E. EXCESSIVE LEACHING: Leaching is the process of removing soluble substances from the top layer of soil through the action of precipitation or irrigation. The rate of leaching increases with heavy rainfall, over irrigation, high temperatures, and the removal of protective vegetation.
Leaching can be beneficial for crops by transporting minerals from topsoil down to roots zones. However, excessive leaching can lead to nutrient imbalances, which can cause poor plant growth and reduced crop yield. Leaching removes vital nutrients and micronutrients, such as water-soluble boron, nitrogen etc from the soil, causing potential deficiencies in crops. For example, Boron deficiency result in distorted or misshapen leaves, thickened leaves, brittle leaves, hollow centers in developing curds or heads, abnormal flower development. And Nitrogen deficiency result in poor plant growth and reduced crop yield etc.

F. POOR ROOT HEALTH:
Root health has a significant impact on a plant’s ability to absorb nutrients from the soil. The roots are the primary interface between the plant and its environment and it is the organ plants use for absorbing nutrients from the soil solution. Root diseases or poor root development can make it harder for plants to absorb nutrients. Root health can affects nutrient uptake through the following ways:
a. Root hairs
Roots have thousands of root hairs that increase their absorbent surface area. Damage to these root hairs can make it difficult for the plant to absorb nutrients and water.
b. Morphological ( such as diameter, surface area, cell wall structure, root hairs, and length) and physiological properties ( anatomical features) of roots and their accompanied tissues also affect nutrient uptake and transport. The root traits( Root traits are characteristics of a plant’s roots that can be morphological, physiological, anatomical, chemical, or biological such as root thickness, longevity, lateral root density, root tip diameter etc ) related to the properties also depend on the kinds of nutrients and their mobility in the soil. For example, plants may grow thinner and produce deeper roots to acquire water and nutrients during droughts.
EFFECTS OF NUTRIENT INBALANCE IN SOIL
Some effects of nutrient imbalances in soil include:
a. REDUCED PLANT GROWTH: Plants may not be able to absorb the nutrients they need to grow.
b. SOIL ACIDIFICATION: Soil can become more acidic, which can reduce soil fertility and the availability of nutrients for plants.
c. CHANGES IN SOIL BIOTA: The composition of soil microorganisms and insects can be affected, which can disrupt the soil food web.
d. ALTERED SOIL CHEMISTRY: The availability of nutrients for plants can be reduced
BALANCING SOIL NUTRIENTS
Soil nutrient balance is the equilibrium between the nutrients that enter the soil and the nutrients that leaves the soil. It’s important for maintaining soil health and productivity. Some ways of maintaining soil nutrient balance include:

1. INCREASE SOM: SOM Prevents clay particles from forming soil mass by adding organic matter. SOM improves pore spaces, increases microbial activities, act as sponge to hold more water etc and helps buffer soil pH. Organic matter also improve soil texture, structure, and chemical balance. Organic matter can be added to soil by using compost, manure, or cover crops.
2.COMPOST: Compost helps balance soil nutrients in a number of ways: It can assist in nutrient release. Compost gradually releases nutrients as organic matter decomposes.  It assist in converting nutrients into available form. Beneficial microorganisms in compost convert nutrients into forms that plants can use. 
Compost also improves soil structure, which helps retain nutrients and allows root systems to access nutrients more effectively.  Compost also assist in maintaining Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio. The ideal carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio for composting is around 30:1, or 30 parts carbon for each part nitrogen by weight. 
Other benefits of compost including:
-Preventing soil erosion
-Assisting in stormwater management
-Promoting healthier plant growth
-Conserving water and
-Reducing waste

3. TEST SOIL: A soil test will provide information on the current levels of nutrients in the soil, including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other nutrients. After the test, the amount of nutrients needed can then be calculated and applied so as not to provide in excess.

4. ADD FERTILIZER: After soil test and the soil shows low levels of key nutrients, then additional commercial fertilizer can be applied to revitalize the soil.

5. PROTECT TOPSOIL: The topsoil is the richest horizon with abundance amount of nutrients and microbial activities. When the topsoil is left bare, loss of nutrient from the layer is high. Therefore, with mulch or cover crops, the topsoil layer can maintain its nutrient level.

6. ROTATE CROPS: Rotating crops can help maintain soil nutrients especially when legumineous crops are included in the rotation. Also, planting crops with different root depth can mine nutrients from the various layers of the soil and not overexploit nutrients from a single layer.

7. LIMIT USE OF CHEMICALS: Farmers should avoid using chemicals or limit their usage. They can only choose chemicals unless there’s no other option.

8. MAINTAIN SOIL MOISTURE: Adequate soil moisture can promote microbial populations and activity. Soil moisture is also needed to dissolve the nutrients and put them in available form for plant uptake.

9. MAINTAIN SOIL pH: Maintain the optimum pH for the soil is essential for optimum plant growth.

10. MAINTAIN SOIL AERATION: Good soil aeration can promote microbial populations and activity. Therefore, soil pore spaces must be improved for optimum soil aeration.

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Nutrient movement in soils and nutrient absorption by plants is a complex and essential process for the growth and development of all plant species. Plants rely on a diverse range of nutrients, which are essential and they can be divided into:

1. Macronutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur and

2. Micronutrients such as iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, molybdenum, and chlorine.

According to Arnon’s Law of Essentiality which state that for a nutrient to be considered essential, a plant must be unable to complete its life cycle without it, and the nutrient must play a specific role in the plant’s metabolic processes. Lack or inadequacy of these essential nutrients leads to deficiency symptoms in plants. For these nutrients to be absorbed by plants, they must be in their ionic forms and dissolved in soil solution. These nutrient sources can be from fertilizers , organic matter, and minerals. Their movement in the soil is influenced by factors such as soil texture, pH levels, moisture content, and root activity. mechanisms govern nutrient movement in soil.

MECHANISMS OF NUTRIENT MOVEMENT IN SOIL. Nutrients move in soil through three main mechanisms:

1. MASS FLOW: It requires water to carry dissolved nutrients in the soil. Nutrients move with water towards plant roots through transpiration, percolation, or evaporation.  The amount of nutrients transported depends on the rate of water flow.

2. DIFFUSION: Nutrients move from areas of higher concentration in the soil to lower concentration at the root surface. This process is similar to adding sugar to water and is relatively slow compared to mass flow.

3. ROOT INTERCEPTION: Roots physically come into contact with nutrient-rich soil particles. 
THEORIES THAT BACK NUTRIENT ABSORPTION BY PLANT ROOTS
When it comes to nutrient absorption by plant roots, some theories and mechanisms come into play……

a. The Carbonic Acid Exchange Theory: This theory explains how plant roots release carbon dioxide, which, in interaction with soil water, forms carbonic acid, aiding in the exchange of nutrient ions.
b. Bennet-Clark’s Protein Lecithin Theory: This theory describe how certain specific proteins and lipids in root cell membranes play a role in selective nutrient absorption, potentially involving carrier proteins.
c. The Contact Exchange Theory: This theory discusses the importance of direct contact between nutrient ions and root cell membranes.

d. Donnan’s Equilibrium Theory: The theory discuss the role of electrical charge and ion gradients in root nutrient absorption, while Ion Pumps and ATPases represent active transport mechanisms that move nutrients against concentration gradients.
e. The Carrier Hypothesis: This describes the involvement of specific carrier proteins in nutrient transport.
f. Lundegardh Theory (Electro-Chemical Theory): Describe the effect of electrochemical gradients and potential differences in root cell membranes.
Nutrient uptake can occur through active or passive transport, depending on nutrient type and environmental conditions.
CONCEPTS OF NUTRIENT MOBILITY AND IMMOBILITY
There are two concept to nutrient mobility and immobility.

1 . Nutrient mobility and immobility in plants. And

2. Nutrient mobility and immobility in soil.

The mobility of a nutrient in the soil is associated with how much of the nutrients can be leached . While conversely, The mobility of a nutrient within the plant determines where  nutrient deficiency  symptoms show up.
There are two types of nutrients based on nutrient transprtation;
a. mobile nutrients
b. immobile nutrients

The terms “Mobile and immobile nutrients” refer to the transportability of nutrients within the plant and soil. In the case of plants, the classification is primarily oriented on terrestrial plants and not in aquatic plants. Transport of nutrients in aquatic plants is different for some substances. The aquatic plant tissues are submerged in the nutrient solution for uptake.

MOBILE NUTRIENTS IN PLANTS: A mobile nutrient is a substance that can move within a plant to where it is needed most, usually new growth. When a plant is deficient in mobile nutrients, the first signs appear in the older leaves. Examples of these mobile nutrients include:
Nitrogen in the form of nitrate, phosphorus (P) in the form of phosphate, potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), chlorine (Cl), zinc (Zn) and molybdene (Mo). These nutrients are transported to new growth from the older leaves.
The mobility of the nutrients within the plant determines where nutrient deficiency symptoms will show up. Mobile nutrients in plant tissue, like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, can be translocated to newly developing leaves and growing portions of the plant and therefore, result in deficiency symptoms in the lower or older leaves.

IMMOBILE NUTRIENTS IN PLANTS
Immobile nutrients do not move easily within a plant. They are unable to be translocated, so when nutrient supply is low, the new growth is where the deficiency symptoms occur.
When a plant is deficient in immobile nutrients, the first signs appear in the new growth or young leaves. Examples of immobile nutrients include:
Calcium (Ca), sulfur (S), iron (Fe), boron (B) and copper (Cu) are immobile.
Plant do find it difficult to uptake sufficient amounts of immobile nutrients and transport them to the new shoots. Plants can transport immobile nutrients to other areas by making use of chelators. Moreover, aquatic plants can absorb immobile nutrients with their foliage, i.e. directly where they are needed. A deficit of these nutrients in terrestrial plants can be amended by foliar fertilization. Therefore, knowing the mobility of nutrients can help diagnose plant nutrient deficiencies.

MOBILE AND IMMOBILE NUTRIENTS IN THE SOIL
There is a misconception about nutrient mobility in soil and plant. Most people and even soil scientist believe that when a nutrient is said to be mobile within the soil, it is also mobile or can be translocated within the plant.

The mobility of a nutrient in the soil is associated with how much of the nutrients can be leached in the soil . Nitrate or sulfate, for example can easily move with water. Other mobile nutrients in soil include potassium( K) which has low mobility, boron (Bo)and manganese (Mn). A good example of a nutrient that is immobile in soil are phosphorus (P), ammonium ( NH4-), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn).

HOW NUTRIENT MOBILITY AND IMMOBILITY OCCURS IN SOIL
The soil generally is negatively charged and tries to attract positively charged nutrients. Some nutrients are negatively charged like nitrate-nitrogen and will be repelled from the soil exchange site. This will make such negatively charged nutrients to float and move freely in the soil and not held by the soil particles.
For nutrients in soil to be available to plants, they must exist as ions – molecules with either a positive or negative charge.  Ions are simply atoms or molecules with a charge, either positive or negative.  Positively charged ions (+) are called Cations, while negatively charged ions are called Anions (-).  Among all essential nutrients, Boron is an exception because it is available to plants in a non-ionic form (no charge).  Mobility of nutrients is due to the charge of each nutrient , whether +(Cation) or -(Anion) and also the strength of the charge as well.
a. NUTRIENT MOBILITY AND NUTRIENT CHARGES
From elementary physics, it is said that opposites charges attract and thesame charges repell. Hence, positively charged ions (Cations) typical bind to soil while negatively charged ions (Anions) are repelled by soil particles and float freely in soil solutions. These Anions(-) which are repelled by the soil particles float freely in the water in soil. The anions will want to disperse themselves to create an even concentrations in the solution, so they move from higher concentrations area to lower concentrations area.  

b. NUTRIENT MOBILITY AND NUTRIENT STRENGHT
Soil vary in composition so also they vary in charge strength. Soils generally maintain a negative charge with small pockets of positive charges intertwined.  The strength of the soil charge is called the Cation Exchange Capacity which measures the number of cations that can be retained by soil particles.  The higher the CEC, the more Cation nutrients that can be stored in the soil. This gives reason why higher CEC soils are rich in soil nutrients. 

There are exceptions to certain Anions that are mobile in soils.  Certain Anions like phosphorus bind tightly to soil particles. Phosphorus locks up to soil particles and becomes unavailable for plants uptake. This means that when the nutrients ( anions) are applied to the soil, farmers should ensure equal concentration of the Anions both at where the roots exist, and where the roots are not found.  The nutrient (Anion) deficiencies will still therefore exist in the soil. Unlike cations, their deficiencies will only exist when there is lack of or inadequate sources of the Cation to have a direct contact with the root zone.

Other nutrients (Anions) which cannot be binded or held to soil particles are repelled into soil solution and float around the soil particles. They can easily be wash out of the soil or leached.  On the contrary, nutrient cations bind to soil particles, therefore find it difficult to be washed out or leached off the soil even with excessive watering or heavy rain. 

LEACHABLE NUTRIENTS
(MOBILE NURIENTS)
Some nutrients are easily leachable due to certain factors. Such factors include:

1 .TYPES OF NUTRIENTS: Nutrients such as nitrate, sulfate, boron, chloride and salt can easily be leached in the soil. Salts can be leached out of the soil through good drainage system.

2. TILLAGE OPERATION: When nutrients are added to the soil and tillage operation is carried out, the operation will help incorporate the nutrient into the soil, thus, make the nutrients to move down into the soil.
IMMOBILE NUTRIENTS
Immobile nutrients include, phosphorus, zinc, copper, potassium etc. If these nutrients are not placed properly or deep into the soil, they may not be accessible by plant roots. Plants need water to absorb the nutrients.
Immobile nutrients must not be applied to the soil surface as this may cause some problems like
a. loss of money
b. pollution of surface water ( causing algae bloom)
c. wash away by wind or water erosion.
d. Nutrient toxicity

ACTIVITIES OF MOBILE AND IMMOBILE SOIL NUTRIENTS WHEN ABSORBED BY PLANTS

Once mobile and immobile soil nutrients are uptake by plant and get inside the plant, the mobile and immobile nutrients action changes. Mobile nutrients have the ability to move from one place to another within the plant. The plant moves them to where they are most needed which is typically new growth. That is why mobile nutrient deficiencies show up first in old growth. The plant can also pull the mobile nutrients from the old growth parts of the plants to where they are more needed ( new growth areas of the plant). On the other hand, immobile nutrients are permanently positioned (or missing) from when that specific part of the plant has formed. Once they have been put in place, they stay permanently. So, when the plant is growing new shoots, buds, and leaves, if there is an inadequate availability of immobile nutrients available to the roots, deficiencies will show in the new growth as it is developed. Additionally, the deficiencies can not be reversed at the sites where they occur.

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Sesame (Sesamum indicum), is a plant in the family Pedaliacea and genus Sesamum. It is also called several names like simsim,  benne  or  gingelly. It is believed to have likely originated from Asia or East Africa. Today, sesame plant is found in most of the tropical, subtropical, and southern temperate areas of the world. Numerous wild relatives occur in Africa and a smaller number in India. It is widely naturalized in tropical regions around the world and is cultivated for its edible seeds, which grow in pods. The world largest producer of sesame include Sudan, Myanmar, and India. Sesame plant is an erect  annual  plant,  grown for its seeds, which are used as food and flavouring and from which a prized oil is extracted. The aroma and taste of sesame seed are mild and nutlike. The chief constituent of the seed is its fixed oil, which usually amounts to about 44 to 60 percent. Noted for its stability, the oil resists oxidative rancidity. The seeds are also high in protein and are rich in thiamin and vitamin B6.

DESCRIPTION OF SESAME PLANT

THE PLANT: Sesame plant (Sesamum indicum) is made up of different varieties which can grow from about 0.5 to 2.5 metres (2 to 9 feet) tall depending on environmental and climatic conditions. Some varieties have branches, others do not.

STEM: The stem is erect, green, and can be smooth, slightly hairy, or very hairy. It can be square in section with longitudinal furrows, or rectangular or flat.
LEAVES: The leaves can be 3–17.5 cm long and 1–7 cm wide. The lower leaves are broad and sometimes lobed, while the upper leaves are more narrow and lanceolate.
FLOWER: The flowers are tubular, bell-shaped, and can be light purple, rose, or white in colour. They grow in the leaf axils and bloom from late summer to early autumn. One to three flowers appear in the leaf axils when developing.

FRUIT: The fruit is a rectangular capsule that contains the seeds. The capsules are 2–3 cm long and 6–12 mm in diameter.

SEEDS: The hulled seeds are creamy or pearly white, black, yellow, or brown and about 3 mm (0.1 inch) long and have a flattened pear shape. They are rough with wings at either end. The seeds are produced in a capsule. The seed capsules open when dry, allowing the seed to scatter. Hand labour is employed in harvesting to prevent loss of the seeds. With the development of a nonscattering variety of the plant in the mid-20th century, mechanized harvesting of the crop was made possible.

ROOTS STEM : The sesame plant has a well-developed root system with profuse lateral branches. This makes the plant very tolerant of drought.

USES OF SESAME
Sesame seed is the main beneficial part of the plant. This gives reason why sesame is cultivated all over the world.

1. The ancient Egyptians are known to have used the ground seed as grain flour.

2. Chinese At about 5,000 years ago till date, extract oil from the seeds and burned the oil to make soot for the finest Chinese ink blocks.

3. In the past, the Romans ground sesame seeds with cumin to make a pasty spread for bread.

4. The sesame plant was once thought to have mystical powers, and sesame still retains a magical quality, as shown in the expression “open sesame,” from the Arabian Nights tale of “Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves.”

5. Sesame oil is used as a salad oil or cooking oil, in shortening and margarine,

6. The oil is used in the manufacture of soaps, pharmaceuticals, and lubricants.

7. Sesame oil is used as an ingredient in cosmetics.

8. The press cake remaining after the oil is expressed is highly nutritious.

9. The whole seed is used extensively in the cuisines of the Middle East and Asia.

10.  Halvah is a confection made of crushed and sweetened sesame seeds.

11. In Europe and North America the seeds are used to flavour and garnish various foods, particularly breads and other baked goods.

12. Tahini, paste of crushed sesame seeds is widely used in Middle East for cooking.

13. Tahini mixed with garlic, lemon juice, and salt and thinned with water constitutes taratoor, a sauce that is eaten as a dip with Arab bread as part of a selection of meze, or hors d’oeuvres. 

14. Taratoor is mixed with ground  chickpeas  for  hummus bi tahini, another hors d’oeuvre dip.

15 .Tahini is also used as a sauce ingredient for fish and vegetable dishes.

16. Sesame seeds are rich in protein, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. 

17. Sesame seeds contain lignans and phytosterols, which are plant compounds that can help lower cholesterol in the body. Phytosterols are also believed to enhance immune response and decrease risk of certain cancers. 

18. Sesame seed also contain substances called sesamin and sesamolin. These two substances have antioxidant and antibacterial properties. Antioxidants are important to health because it protect the body against various diseases by slowing down damage to cells. 
The antibacterial activity of sesame seeds is proven to fight against staph infections and strep throat as well as common skin fungi, such as athlete’s foot.

19. Type 2 diabetes is a lifelong disease that does not allow the human body to produce insulin the way it should. This result in high blood sugar level called hyperglycemia. Research had shown that taking oil of sesame seeds with type 2 diabetes medications enhances the effectiveness of the treatment.. Eating healthy foods like sesame seeds can help people with type 2 diabetes reach their target blood sugar levels. Additionally, the antioxidants in sesame oil reduce the amount of sugar in the blood.

20. A lot of people believed to have poor oral hygiene Sesame seeds can also get rid of the bacteria that cause plaque on your teeth. An ancient practice called oil pulling is shown to improve your oral hygiene and health when practiced regularly and correctly. Sesame oil is one of the most common oils used in this practice, which involves swishing a tablespoon of oil around your mouth when you wake up in the morning.

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT
Sesame is a drought resistant plant that thrives in warm climate and it is primarily grown for its oily seeds. the oil is used in cooking, cosmetics etc.
It grows best in areas with mean annual rainfall of 300-600mm and temperature between 25-30°C. If the temperature is more than 40°C with hot wind, the oil content will reduce. If the temperature goes beyond 45°C or below 15°C, yield will decrease.
SOIL REQUIREMENT: Sesame plants can grow best in well-drained, fertile, medium-textured soils. They thrive in sandy loam soils. They are intolerant of acidic or saline soils and cannot tolerate wet conditions. They require soil with pH range of 5.5 to 8.0.
LAND PREPARATION: Sesame plants need a fine, firm, and smooth seedbed. To achieve this, clear the land of weeds, rocks and other debris. Plough the soil to break up clods. Harrow and create a fine seed beds. It is recommended to do land Preparation one month before planting or sowing.
SEEDS SELECTION: Select high quality seeds for planting. Choose seeds that are uniform in size, shape and free from pests and diseases and have a high yield germination rate.
SOWING: Sow seeds directly in the field preferably during the onset of monsoon. Seeds should be sown at the depth of 2-3cm between rows and 10cm between plants.
To facilitate seeding and achieve even distribution, the seeds can be mixed with dry sand or well sieves farm yard manure in the ratio 1: 20. Seed drill can be done to sow seeds into the soil. The depth of drills should not be deeper than 2.5cm. Placement method can then be used to sow the seed. Deep seeding can affect germination and plant stand.
SPACING: Spacing depends on sesame variety, plant type and season. Some varieties are planted 30cm ×15cm. Some 60cm×15cm, while some have spacing of 45cm ×15cm.
SEED TREATMENT: Sesame seeds should be treated before sowing to prevent seed borne diseases. They should be treated with fungicides or bactericides.
IRRIGATION: Sesame is a drought resistant plant and can tolerate low rainfall. however, regular irrigation is necessary during the early growth stage. Avoid waterlogging as it may cause root rot.
FERTILIZER APPLICATION: apply 20-25kgN, 40-50kgP per hectare of land during land Preparation. Apply 20-25kgN per hectare of land as a top dressing after 30 days of sowing.
WEEDING; this is critical in sesame farming as weeds compete with the crop for sunlight, nutrients and water. use pre-emergence herbicide and hand weeding to control weeds.

PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL

Sesame is susceptible to pest and diseases such as stem borers, aphids, whiteflies and fusarium wilt etc.

PESTS

1. LEAF ROLLER OR WEBBER AND CAPSULE BORER ( Antigastra catalaunalis): This pest is most prevalent during the capsule formation and early vegetative stages of the plant. They start attacking the plant at 2-3 weeks after germination when the leaves are still tender. The damage is easy to identify, as it’s often marked by small black balls of excrement. The caterpillars feed on the tender leaves. The larvae feed inside the plant, boring holes into the pods and destroying the seeds. 

CONTROL: Early sowing of seeds, intercropping, crop rotation, use of biological control by allowing birds to feed on the pests, spraying insecticides etc.

2. LEAF HOPPER ( Orosius albicinctus)
The nymph stage and adult stage sucks the sap of tender parts of the plants. This pest causes the leaves to curl at the edges, turn red or brown, dry up, and shed. 
CONTROL: Remove infested parts and destroy, seed treatment, intercropping and spray insecticides.

3. GALL FLY ( Asphondylia sesami).
The fly lay eggs that hatch to produce maggots.
The maggots of this pest cause buds to develop into galls that produce no fruits or seeds. 
CONTROL: Gall clipping, picking and burning the shed buds, plant resistant varieties and spray insecticides.
Other pests include:

4. TIL HAWK-MOTH ( Acherontia styx): This pest is made up of large caterpillars that feed on leaves and defoliate the plants. 

CONTROL: Deep ploughing, collect and destroy caterpillars and spray insecticides.

5. WHITEFLY: This pest sucks the cell-sap from the lower surface of leaves and also in the tender leaves. 

6. TIL LEAF AND POD CATERPILLAR : This pest feeds on leaves and bores into shoots, flowers, buds, and pods, damaging young plants. 

7. MIRID BUG: This pest sucks the cell-sap from tender leaves, flowers, and fruits. 

8. APHIDS: This pest causes stunted growth and may injure buds, preventing the development of seedpods. 

9. THRIPS: This pest causes stunted growth and may injure buds, preventing the development of seedpods. 

Some ways to manage these pests include:

1. Insecticidal soap spray: This can be used to manage aphids, leafhoppers, and thrips.

2. Neem oil: This can be used to smother pests.

3. Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis): This naturally occurring bacteria can be used to treat leafrollers, cutworms, and other caterpillars. 

4. Also, use pesticides and fungicides to control pests and diseases

DISEASES
Some common diseases of sesame include:

1. PHYLLODY: A phytoplasma disease transmitted by leafhoppers. It causes abundant abnormal branching of the shoot which causes the top of the shoot to bend. Also, infected plants do not bear capsules. But peradventure capsules are produced, the seeds will be of low quality.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Intercropping, delay in planting, spray insecticides to kill leaf hoppers, Rogueing, spray neem oil etc.

2. MACROPHOMINA ROOT AND STEM ROT: A destructive disease caused by the fungus Macrophomina phaseolina. The diseases appear on root and stem. The plant will show symptoms of wilting, at ground level, the stem becomes black in colour which extend upward rupturing the stem. If wilted plants are uprooted, black coloured roots will be observed showing signs of sclerotia of the fungi.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Crop rotation, deep ploughing, soil drenching, plant resistant varieties etc.

3. CERCOSPORA LEAF SPOT (CLS): A fungal disease caused by the fungus Cercospora sesami. The disease appear as small angular brown leaf spot of about 3mm in diameter with grey center and brown margine. Under severe condition, defoliation occurs. Lesion may also occur
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Early planting, intercropping, plant resistant varieties and spray chemicals.

4. POWDERY MILDEW: A fungal disease caused by the fungus Erysiphae cichoracearum . Small cottony spot appear on the affected leaves which spread to the laminar. Under severe condition, defoliation occurs.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Early planting, intercropping, plant resistant varieties, and spray chemicals on the leaves.

5. BACTERIAL LEAF SPOT AND BLIGHT: A bacterial disease caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. sesami. Plant shows symptoms of small angular,light brown to brown spot confines on veins with dark margins. When disease spread to veins and petioles, defoliation occurs.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Seed treatment with hot water and foliar spray with chemicals.

6. PHYTOPHTHORA BLIGHT: A fungal disease . It shows signs of initial water soaked spots on the leaves and stems. In the beginning, the spot turn brownish and later turn to black colour.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Deep ploughing, improve drainage system, crop rotation, plant diseased free seeds, seed treatment, spray chemicals.

HARVESTING: One of the signs for harvesting is the leaves turn yellowish and start to droop. sesame is ready for harvesting when the capsules turn brown and start to split open. Harvest by cutting the crop at the ground level and allow them to dry for few days. Thresh the dried plants by beating with stick or machine thresher and separate the seeds from the capsules.

STORAGE: Store sesame seeds in a cool dry place to prevent spoilage. use appropriate storage containers to prevent pest infestation.

In conclusion, sesame farming require proper planning, implementation and execution of the plan to earn a profitable income from its cultivation. Careful following of the above steps of its cultivation will bring about a bountiful harvest and increase farmers income.

The post SESAME CULTIVATION appeared first on Supreme Light.

Shrimps farming is becoming popular and also increasing all over the world. The highest shrimps and prawn producer lies in the Asian continent where millions of shrimps or prawns are raised and exported to other continents.
Shrimps ( Penaeus spp) are invertebrates, Crustaceans with approximately 2,000 species belonging to the suborder Natantia, order Decapoda (which means “10-footed” because they have ten legs), and the class Crustacea. Close relatives include crabs, crayfish, prawns and lobsters.

Shrimp are characterized by a semitransparent body flattened from side to side and a flexible abdomen terminating in a fanlike tail. The appendages are modified for swimming, and the antennae are long and whiplike. Shrimp swim backward by rapidly flexing the abdomen and tail.
Shrimps are found in all oceans, in shallow and deep water and in freshwater lakes and streams. Many species are commercially important as food. They range in length from a few millimetres to more than 20 cm (about 8 inches); average size is about 4 to 8 cm (1.5 to 3 inches).
Most people refer to larger individual shrimps as prawns. But they differ from one another.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PRAWN AND SHRIMPS
The names “prawn” and “shrimp” are often used interchangeably in culinary terms due to their similarity in taste and appearance. But they differ from one another.
They belong to thesame subphylum of Crustacean, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, etc. They also belong to the order “Decapoda,” which means “10-footed” because they have ten legs. But they differ in the following ways:

1. They belong to different suborders. Prawn belongs to the suborder Dendrobranchiata, while shrimp are in the Pleocyemata suborder.

2. They also belong to other families, with prawns belonging to Penaeidae and shrimps belonging to Caridea.

3. Prawns are primarily found in freshwater habitats like rivers and lakes. Shrimps, on the other hand, live exclusively in saltwater habitats.

4. Prawns are usually larger than shrimps and have straighter body shapes; they can grow up to 6 inches and above.
In comparison, shrimp are smaller, with most species being between 1 and 3 inches long.

5. Prawns release their fertilized eggs into the water and leave them to grow and care for themselves.
On the other hand, shrimps carry their eggs on the underside of their bodies until they hatch etc.

BENEFITS OF SHRIMPS
Shrimps are not only beneficial in the business sector but are also beneficial in other ways. They are healthy food diets in human and Livestock feeds. It is rich in minerals and vitamins which can treat numerous diseases in the human body. They are also rich source of selenium that prevents the growth of cancer cells in human body. They are like fish that is rich source of Omega 3 fatty acids which is good for heart and help in reducing cholesterol level.

1. RELIEF OF MENSTRUAL PAINS: Shrimps contain Omega 3 fatty acids which help balance the negative effects of Omega 6 fatty acids and aid the alleviation of menstrual cramps for women. It also promote healthier blood flow to the reproductive organs.

2. STRENGTHEN THE BONES: Shrimps contain proteins and vitamins and nutrients such as calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium that help prevent bone degeneration. They also help slow the effects of ageing bones.

3. SOURCE OF MEAT: The main source of food in shrimps is the meaty abdomen after the exoskeleton is removed. The meat contains zero carbs, very low in calories and rich in protein.

4. The fat content in shrimps is low.

5. Shrimps are treasure trove of vitamins and minerals. They contain nutrients such as iron, calcium, sodium, phosphorus, zinc, magnesium and potassium. They are also rich in vitamins A, E,B6 and B12.

6. AIDS COGNITION: The high iron content in shrimps aid blood flow. It increases oxygen flow to the muscles and brain. This ensures strengthening and endurance and improves memory and concentration.

7. IODINE: Iodine helps the human body to produce thyroxine (thyroid hormone) needed for development of brain during infancy and pregnancy.

8. HELP LOSS WEIGHT: The protein and vitamin D with no carbohydrate help loss weight.

9. The astaxanthin is a powerful antioxidant found in shrimps that reduces the sign of aging in the skin of human.

10. They contain zinc that help increase leptin level in the body of human. Leptin is an integral part of the body that helps regulate fat storage, appetite and overall energy use.

11. DELAY AGEING: Shrimp meat contain heparin like compound, a substance that relates muscular degradation. It also help treat neovascular AMD.

12. The Asthaxanthin also help relief eye fatigue.

13. IMPROVE HEART HEALTH: Shrimp meat contains fibeinolytic enzyme used for thrombolytic treatment which help prevent dangerous blood clotting. The enzyme can help prevent dangers of cardiovascular diseases.

14. The Omega 3 fatty acid eliminate damages caused by cholesterol in the blood stream.

15. STRENGHTENS HAIR: Zinc deficiency can cause hair loss. zinc in the body maintains and create new cells including hair and skin cells.

16. ANTI-AGEING PROPERTIES: Sunlight is one of the causes of skin ageing. Taking a meal of shrimps in diet can help build new skin cells, creating a glowing skin and not worn out or wrinkled faces.

17. Apart from the vast amount of minerals and vitamins found in shrimp meat, they also contain iodine, thiamin, riboflavin and niacin.

18. ASTAXANTHIN: This is a compound found in shrimps. It improves memory performance, improves survival of the brain cells and reduce the risk of brain inflammation diseases.
SIDE EFFECTS OF SHRIMPS

1. MERCURY: Mercury is harmful to human health. Shrimps contains some amount of mercury which can cause mercury poisoning, vision issues and decrease fetal health.

2. FOOD ALLERGIES: People who do not consume sea foods can be allergic at their first consumption of shrimps.

3. PURINES: Purine break down into uric acids in human body when cells die. Therefore, consuming high amount of shrimps promote uric acid flow in the body.

SHRIMP FARMING
Shrimp farming also known as shrimp aquaculture, is a method of cultivating shrimp in a controlled environment for human consumption. The controlled environment may be ponds, tanks, or raceways using freshwater or marine waters for raising the aquatic organisms.

METHODS USED FOR SHRIMP FARMING

TRADITIONAL METHODS
In traditional shrimp farming, fry are collected from the wild or concentrated through tidal water pumped into ponds. This method can lead to low yields and inconsistent production because of the seasonal supply of fry, inefficient control of predators and competitors, full dependence on natural food and inadequate pond depth. But gradually, some improvements were being made over the traditional farming methods. Stocking density of shrimp ponds are increased through concentration of fry by pumping more tidal water into the ponds. Also, pond depth has now being increased to minimize fluctuations of environmental parameters. As a result, pond yield has correspondingly increased. However, expansion of the shrimp farming industry is still restricted due to the inconsistency in fry supply.
Today, mass production of hatchery-bred shrimp fry has being achieved especially in Asia. This hatchery has being accompanied with improved pond culture techniques, increasing yield from traditional shrimp ponds to about 500–800 kg/ha/year without supplementary feeding. But with supplementary feeds coupled with intensive pond management, pond yield can be further increased to 5–10 tons.

MODERN FARMING TECHNIQUES
The modern shrimp farming techniques also referred to as intensive method of shrimp culture operation is more sophisticated compared to the traditional methods. It requires very high financial and technical inputs with rearing facilities such as: earthen ponds or concrete tanks etc. This culture operation completely depend on hatchery-bred fry, high stocking density can be achieved, formulated feeds are used, application of aeration to increase dissolved oxygen level in pond water and intensive water management are utilized in this system.

Pond or tank sizes have increased from 500 m2 –5,000 m2 as found in Japan, Taiwan, Philippines and Thailand. The ponds now have dikes made of pure earthen material, earth coated with plastic sheets or concrete with separate inlet and outlet gates or small water inlets for flow-through purposes. Drain out system is in the form of a centrally located drain pipe, a drain gate (sluice or monk type) or a combination of both.

ADVANTAGES OF MODERN TECHNIQUES OVER TRADITIONAL SYSTEM

1. Modern techniques can increase shrimp yield.

2. Stocking density can be increased.

3.Regular pond size

4. Well aeration ponds

5. Use of high proteineous formulated feed etc.

SITES SELECTION FOR SHRIMP CULTURE

The selection of a suitable site always play a major role in shrimp farming. To determine a suitable site for shrimp farming, there is need to gather informations like: information on topography, ecosystem, meteorological and socioeconomic conditions in relation to farm design, species compatibility and economic viability. All of these must be analysed for proper profitable shrimp farming. All these will guide the farmer in making good judgment of the site. The site must have good water quality, availability of freshwater and assess to sea water, the land must be flat and adequate infrastructures must be in place.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS SUITABLE FOR SHRIMP FARMING
Shrimps are affected by warm climate. Tropical and subtropical climate are suitable when the culture period is too long. While warm temperate climate periods are appropriate when the culture period is short.
Shrimps can survive at a temperature of about 93°C. Above which their growth is impaired and they die. At 65°C, they will grow slaugishly.

WATER QUALITY AND WATER MANAGEMENT

Factors considered when choosing water quality for shrimps farming include: physico-chemical, water temperature, dissolved oxygen ,microbiological characteristics of water , salinity and water pH etc. The most important factor is the water pH. The prefered pH range of the water is from 7 to 8.5. Also, the level of oxygen saturation throughout the water column is of important because the shrimps need oxygen to breath and algae and planktons need it to grow. Fluctuations in dissolved oxygen level should be monitored as the prefered oxygen level should not be lower than 4 ppm. Below which the shrimps will die.

The water must not be too turbid. Water with very heavy silt load can cause siltation problems in the water supply system, eg., clogging of filter nets or net enclosures and increasing sedimentation at the pond bottom. The water is preferably to be rich in microorganisms.

Water salinity variation should also be monitored when producing shrimps. Optimal level varies from species to species. For instance, the tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) grows faster at 15–30 ppt. The white shrimp (P. indicus and P. merguiensis) tolerate higher salinity ranges (25–40 ppt). Ideally, salinity should remain uniform at normal weather and should not drop abruptly during rainy days. Therefore, the quantity and quality of the water are crucial for shrimps production. It is important for proper growth and survival of the shrimps and prawns.
Water management should therefore involve maintaining a correct pH, water temperature, dissolved oxygen level and salinity.

TIDAL FLUCTUATIONS : The tidal characteristics of the proposed site should be known. Knowledge of this parameter is of extreme importance in determining pond bottom elevation of dike, slope ratio and drainage system.

Areas best suited for shrimp farming should have moderate tidal fluctuations preferably 2–3 meters. In areas where the tidal range is greater than 4 meters, the site may prove uneconomical to develop or operate as large and high pond dikes will be required. In areas where tidal range is less than one meter, water management will be expensive as thus will require the use of pumps.

A salient point to consider in relation to tidal range is the knowledge of the occurence of highest high and lowest low water levels. This should be known so that the size and height of the perimeter dike can prevent flooding. In addition, direction and strength of water current should be known for provisions on dikes construction to reduce erosion.

Lastly, the proposed area must not be adversely affected by any industrial or agricultural pollution.

SOIL : The types and texture of the soil of the area should be analyzed before settling on a site for shrimp farming. Soil samples must be taken at random location, preferably up to a depth of 0.5 meter and subjected to physical and chemical tests to determine the acidity, amount of organic load, level of fertility and physical composition.

The soil at the proposed site should have enough clay contest. This is to ensure that the ponds constructed will hold water. Good quality dikes are usually built from sandy clay or sandy loam materials which harden and easily compacted. The dikes will not crack in dry weather. Clay-loam or silty-clay loam at pond bottom promotes growth of natural food organisms. Diking materials made of undecomposed plant matter and alluvial sediments should be avoided.

Most ponds developed along the coastal areas with dense mangrove vegetation often have acid-sulphate problem during the first few years of operation. This is due to the accumulation of pyrites (iron sulfide) in coastal soil. Breakdown of pyrites is minimal in submerged soil.
Alleviating acid sulphate conditions in ponds requires the use of lime and removal of acid by leaching and flushing.

TOPOGRAPHY : It is essential to have a detail topography of the selected site for pond design and farm layout. flat lands are suitable for pond construction. Coastal sites where the slopes run gently towards the sea are easier for pond development. Such areas require less financial inputs to excavate the land as the soil is soft and water is available to assess. Filling and draining of water is easily facilitated by gravity.

In areas where the above conditions are not available, mechanical pumps are employed ro pump water into the pond and to drain water likewise. One major constraint associated with this the topography of this area is the availability of sufficient quantity of soil for dike construction. Soils for dike construction are obtained from excavation of ponds or from above ground bunds. It is uneconomical if diking materials are transported from outside the site.

 VEGETATION: The type of vegetation in the area can be, to some extend, indicative of physical elevation and soil type. Dominance of the mangrove plants Avicennia spp. is an indication of good and productive soil. Outgrowths of Rhizophora spp. which are usually characterized by dense prop root systems usually signifies soil types that are coarse and acidic.
All vegetation at the site should be cleared first before any land development should take place. Clearing operation increase the cost of production.

 OTHER FACTORS: Other factors to consider include: source of fry to stock, assessibility to farm site, availability and quality of labor, peace and conflicted areas, nearness to market, storage and processing facilities, availability and source of electricity and water supply, marketing channels and facilities etc.

POND PREPARATION/ CONSTUCTION
To construct the pond, all weeds, debris or organic matter should be removed, the ground must be levelled, the perimeter wall and water inlet and outlet must be constructed. The size of the pond must be sufficient enough for the good growth and to obtain healthy and quality products from the farm so as to earn good return.
The pond should not/be more than 4 feet deep and should be well designed to have either a circular or square shape. The base of the pond must have a clean surface with the recommended pH range.
Suitable disease resistant chemical fertilizers should be applied to the side surface of the pond so as to keep away the selected fry from diseases in the pond. Also, organic manure like cured cow manure should be applied. This helps improve fertility and reproductive capacity in the pond. It also enhances the growth of plants and planktons which are food for the shrimps and prawns.
The pond should be filled with clean water, leave for about 7 to 10 days after filling and then stocked. This will ensure good growth in the pond.

SPECIES SELECTION
BREEDS OF SHRIMPS
There are various species of shrimps. They include:
prawn pistol shrimp, coral shrimp (Pandalus montagui), firefly shrimp etc. To select breeds of shrimps for farming, farmers should select breeds that are fast growing, high yielding, and should consider the climatic condition of their area or locality.

1. The common European shrimp, or sand shrimp,  (Crangon vulgaris ,Crago septemspinosus), occurs in coastal waters on both sides of the North Atlantic and grows to about 8 cm (3 inches); it is gray or dark brown with brown or reddish spots. The shrimp Peneus setiferus feeds on small plants and animals in coastal waters from North Carolina to Mexico; it attains lengths of 18 cm (7 inches). The young live in shallow bays and then move into deeper waters. Crangon vulgaris and Peneus setiferus are commercially important, as are the brown-grooved shrimp (P. aztecus) and the pink-grooved shrimp (P. duorarum).

2. The edible river shrimps of the genus  Macrobrachium  (Palaemon) are found in most tropical countries.

3. The pistol: shrimp, Alpheus, which grows to 3.5 cm (1.4 inches), stuns prey by snapping together the fingers of the large chelae, or pincers. In the Red Sea, species of Alpheus share their burrows with  goby  fishes. The fishes signal warnings of danger to the shrimp by body movements. The coral shrimp,  Stenopus hispidus, a tropical species that  attains  lengths of 3.5 cm (1.4 inches), cleans the scales of coral fish as the fish swims backward through the shrimp’s chelae.

4. Fairy shrimp, so called because of their delicate, graceful appearance, superficially resemble true shrimp but belong to a separate order, the Anostraca.

Shrimp species cultured in Asian countries belong to two genera (Penaeus and Metapenaeus). Among the dozen species cultured, Penaeus monodon, P. japonicus, P. merguiensis, P. indicus, P. orientalis and Metapenaeus ensis are the most important ones.

5. Penaeus japonicus and P. orientalis:
The spawners of Penaeus japonicus and P. orientalis are readily obtained in large numbers from the wild. The shrimp is hardy and can withstand handling. The survival rate of the adult shrimp of these species for long distance transportation is high. However, the species cannot tolerate low salinity and high temperature. P. japonicus prefers sandy bottom in grow-out ponds and grow fasts in high protein (about 60%) diet feed. The other temperate species, P. orientalis which is being cultured commercially in China and Korea, has a single pronounced spawning season in spring. Since both are temperate species, the period of hatchery operation is limited to the warmer seasons only.

6. Penaeus monodon:
Known as tiger or jumbo shrimp, is the most common species in Southeast Asian countries. It is one of the fastest growing species among the various shrimps that can be cultured. In pond conditions, shrimp fry of about 1 g in weight grow to a size of 75–100 g in five months at a stocking density of 5,000 per hectare. Some can grow up to 25 g in 16 weeks in tanks stocked at 15/m2 ; others can grow up to 42 g in 210 days in earthen pond and to 35 g in three months in tanks stocked at 15/m2 . The tiger shrimp is a euryhaline species and grows well in salinities ranging from 15 to 30 ppt. It is hardy and not readily stressed by handling. Presently, the major supply of its fry is still from the wild but the supply is sparse. Although several hatcheries have been established notably in the Philippines. Taiwan and Thailand, fry production is not consistent due to the full dependence on spawners caught from the wild. Until broodstock in captive condition can be made to mature and spawn, hatchery production of this species still has to depend on wild supply of spawners.

7. Penaeus indicus and P. merguiensis:
The biological characteristics of both species are generally the same. Many fish farmers are not able to distinguish the two species from each other. There are behavioral differences which help easy distinction. P. indicus prefers sandy bottom and is difficult to harvest by draining the pond while P. merguiensis is found most frequently in ponds with muddy bottoms moving out of the pond readily when water is drained. Gravid females of these species are easily obtained in large quantities from the wild. They can also mature in captivity. The larvae are more easily raised than those of P. monodon. However, the larvae are less hardy than other species, the juveniles and adults cannot withstand rough handling. Large quantities of fry can be obtained from natural spawning grounds. The growth rate in pond is relatively fast, reaching 12–15 g within the first three months of culture.

8. Metapenaeus ensis:
This species is very tolerant to low salinity (5–30 ppt) and high temperature (25–45°C). Fry are abundant in natural spawning ground and their survival rate in the ponds is usually high. This shrimp usually does not grow to a large size and has a low market price compared to other species. They are largely produced from trapping ponds or as secondary species of shrimp farms. The prawn or shrimps can be sold alive, fresh and frozen or processed depending on the market demand.

STOCKING THE POND
After the pond is constructed and ready, water management in place, the shrimp larvae are then introduced into the pond. The larvae should be purchased from hatcheries that specialize in shrimp and prawn breeding.

REPRODUCTION
The female shrimp may lay from 1,500 to 14,000 eggs, which are attached to the swimming legs. The swimming larvae pass through five developmental stages before becoming juveniles.

NURSERY PHASE
A nursery phase can reduce the risk of stocking post-larvae (PL) from hatcheries directly into grow-out ponds. In a nursery, PLs are stocked in small ponds or tanks for 30 days to enhance their immune systems. At 30 days, they are ready to be moved to the grow-out ponds. They are collected using a scope net or bag net. They undergo several growth stages including juvenile stage before becoming big enough to be called prawns. This takes more than 3 months.

FEEDING
Shrimp are omnivorous and will eat almost anything they find. Careful managed feeding regime is required. They feed once in a day. Shrimps do feed on high proteineous diets that include fish meal, soybean meal with other suppliments. The adult or matured shrimps should not be raised along side with the fry or juvenile as the smaller species become prey to the bigger species.
In traditional system, the food of shrimps mainly consist mostly of small plants and animals, although some shrimp feed on carrion. In intensive farming, shrimp are fed a mix of marine and terrestrial ingredients like fish meal and soybean meal.
Also, they feed on pelletized or commercial feeds. In an ecologically balanced ponds, they can feed on growing algae, larvae, and planktons. Natural foods are much prefered to supplementary feeds as this can increase cost of production.
Supplmentary feed is only required to increase growth and quality of production. The supplementary feed consist of agricultural and Livestock by- products, cheap feeds like broken rice, vegetables, tapioca roots, trash fish and Livestock feeds, all mixed in adequate proportion and produced in pellet form. The pellets must be produced in such a way that it sinks to the bottom of the pond quickly when fed to the shrimps and remain intact for atleast few hours till the shrimps completely feed on them.
The feeding schedule is usually adjusted based on the growth rate of the shrimps.

WATER QUALITY MONITORING
Regular water monitoring is essential to ensure that the pond environment is optimal for the shrimps growth. The parameters to monitor include temperature , dissolved oxygen, pH and salinity.
The water should also be checked for any toxicity, dissolved chemicals or substances or predators and pathogens on regular bases.
Water quality maximizes survival and growth rate of the shrimps. Paddledwheels and aspirations are usually used for aeration of the water. Aeration will generate a current that causes the sediments to accumulate at the center of the pond, thus, keeping clean feeding areas around the pond edges. As quality of shrimps increases, the level of aeration required also increases to keep the level of the dissolved oxygen in the water.
Water fountains can also be used for aeration. This will provide an aesthetic attraction and also aeration of the pond.
Also, it is important to note that shrimps do moult to increase in size because they are invertebrates. When they moult, the exoskeleton sinks to the bottom of the pond and may rot with feeds, this affecting the dissolved oxygen and creating poor water quality. Moulting can be recognized by the existence of exuviae in the pond. Therefore, to solve the problem of moult rottening, the soft exoskeleton must be less than 5% in the pond. This can be achieved by scheduled harvesting of the shrimps between two moultings.

DISEASES
Shrimps farming is susceptible to disease outbreaks. Therefore, proper disease management is crucial to maintain a healthy stock.
Shrimp farming can be affected by viral diseases like white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), yellow head disease virus (YHDV), and Taura syndrome.
CONTROL AND TREATMENT

1. Regular monitoring for signs of diseases should be carried out.

2. Appropriate treatments using antibiotics and prebiotic should be carried out to prevent and treat disease outbreak.

3. Maintaining water quality

HARVESTING
This is one of the final steps in shrimp farming. Shrimps reach table size in 3 months. Timing of the harvest is crucial to maximize yield and minimize lossess.
Harvesting involves draining of the pond or tank or raceways and the shrimps are captured. Some farmers uses cast nets to capture the shrimps. This is common in a water recirculatory system used in the farm.
The cast nets can be of different mesh sizes as farmer may only want bigger size shrimps living the smaller sized ones unharvested. The shrimps are then processed for sale.

SORTING: Shrimps, after harvesting are usually separated based on sizes, weights and softness. Based on sizes, there is the large sized, jumbo size and the soft shelled shrimps.

MARKETING: Farmers source for buyers and negotiate price with them based on the size of shrimps or prawn harvest.

In conclusion, shrimp farming is a complex process that involves careful management so as to achieve maximum profit.

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Cucumber (Cucumis sativus), is a creeping plant of the gourd family  (Cucurbitaceae), belong to the order Cucurbitales and containing 98 genera and about 975 species. It is widely cultivated for its edible fruit.
Members of the family may be either annual or perennial herbs and are native to temperate and tropical areas. Some of the plants under the gourd family include cucumbers, gourds, melons, squashes, and pumpkins.
The cucumber fruit has low nutritional value but its delicate flavour makes it popular for salads and relishes. Small fruits of cucumber are often pickled.
Cucumbers are often mistaken for vegetables. But they are fruits, specifically berries.
Some of the common names of cucumber from other countries include : kut-ahun (Bunan), tangkuikut-ahun (Bunan), 黄瓜 (Chinese, simplified), 青瓜 (Chinese, traditional), okurka setá (Czech), gurke (German), cetriolo (Italian), 오이 (Korean), eckadamin (Ojibwe), ogórek siewny (Polish), pepino (Portuguese), oгурец обыкновенный (Russian), පිපිඤ්ඤා (Sinhala), pepino cohombro (Spanish), gurka (Swedish), bi-toni-castilla (Zapoteco)etc. In Nigeria, Hausa tribe call it – Kokwamba Yoruba- Kukumba, and Igbo- Kukumba.
DESCRIPTION
PLANT :
Cucumber plants are tender annual or perennial  with a rough, succulent, trailing stems. They possess creeping vines that grow on trellises or other supports using spiraling tendrils. The plants have large leaves that form a canopy over the fruit.

THE LEAVES: The leaves are hairy and have three to five pointed lobes.
THE STEM: The stem bears branched tendrils by which the plant can be trained to supports.
THE FLOWER: The flower has five-yellow petals which  are unisexual and produce a type of berry known as a pepo after fertilization.

FRUITS: The cucumber fruit is a long, green, fleshy , berries fruit that is a member of the gourd family. They are made up of over 90% water, making them excellent for staying hydrated.
The fruits which are cylindrical with tapered ends, can be up to 24 inches long and 4 inches in diameter. They have a dark green outer skin and are pale green inside. They contain numerous numbers of seeds.
SEEDS
Cucumber seeds are whitish in colour, rich in oil and have a nutty flavor, but are difficult to use because they are small and covered in a fibrous coat.

VARIETIES
There are three main varieties of cucumber: slicing, pickling, and burpless. Under the varieties are different types.

They types include:
a. The most commonly available type of cucumber is the hothouse or English cucumber. It is large, with dark green skin, and few or no seeds.

b. Armenian, or snake cucumbers: These are long and twisted with thin, dark green skin and pale furrows. People often use them for pickling.

c. Japanese cucumbers: These are dark green and narrow. The skin is thin with small bumps on it. People can eat them whole.

d. Kirby cucumbers: People often use these for dill pickles. They are crispy, with thin skin and small seeds.

e. Lemon cucumber: These are around the size of a lemon, with pale skin. The taste is sweet and delicate.

f. Persian cucumbers: Shorter and fatter than the hothouse cucumber, these are crunchy to eat.
g. The wild cucumber vine (Echinocystis lobata) is a fast-growing plant that is native to North America. Gardeners consider it a weed. Its fruits are not edible.

BENEFITS OF CUCUMBER
1) Hydration: Cucumbers consist mostly of water, and they also contain important electrolytes. They can help prevent dehydration in hot weather or after a workout. Staying hydrated is essential for maintaining a healthy intestine, preventing  constipation, avoiding kidney stones, and etc.
For people who do not enjoy drinking water, adding cucumber and mint can make it more appealing.

2. Cucumbers are a nutritious food that contain many important vitamins and minerals. Cucumbers may also benefit skin health.

3. Cucumbers provide various nutrients but are low in calories, fat, cholesterol, and sodium.

4. Bone health:
Vitamin K helps with blood clotting, and it may support bone health. It helps improve calcium absorption. Together, these nutrients can contribute to good bone health.

5. Vitamin D is also important for bone health. Cucumber also contain vitamin D.

6. Cancer
As a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, cucumbers contain high levels of bitter-tasting nutrients known as cucurbitacin. Studies has proven that cucurbitacins may help prevent cancer by stopping cancer cells from reproducing.

7. Cucumber with its skin also provides around 1 g of fiber. Fiber may help protect against colorectal cancer.

8. Cardiovascular health:
Cucumber has high fiber content. The fiber can help manage cholesterol and prevent related cardiovascular problems.

9. Cucumber is also rich in potassium and magnesium. The Dietary Guidelines recommend that adults consume 4,700 mg of potassium each day and 310–410 mg of magnesium, depending on sex and age. By
reducing sodium intake and increasing potassium intake may help prevent high blood pressure.

10. The cucurbitacins in cucumber may also help prevent atherosclerosis.
11. Diabetes:
Cucumbers may play a role in controlling and preventing diabetes. It contains substances that may help lower blood sugar or stop blood glucose from rising too high.
The cucurbitacins in cucumber help regulate insulin release and the metabolism of hepatic glycogen, a key hormone in the processing of blood sugar.
Studies have also shown that cucumber peel can help manage the symptoms of diabetes in mice. This may be due to its antioxidant content.
Its Fiber too, may help prevent and manage type 2 diabetes, according to the AHA.

12. Cucumbers score low on the glycemic index (GI). This means they provide essential nutrients without adding carbohydrates that can increase blood glucose.

13. Inflammation:
Cucumbers may have anti-inflammatory benefits. Inflammation is a function of the immune system.
Experts believe inflammation may help trigger the development of various health conditions, such as:
cardiovascular disease
diabetes, autoimmune conditions, depression and
cancer

14. Skin care:
Some research has suggested that cucumber’s nutrients may provide benefits for skin health.
Applying sliced cucumber directly to the skin can help cool and soothe the skin and reduce swelling and irritation. It can alleviate sunburn. 16. Placed slice of cucumber on the eyes, they can help decrease morning puffiness.

15. Cucumber has some beauty tips which include:
It is used as toner: The juice of cucumber is used as a natural toner. Rub and leave the juice on the skin for 30 minutes, then rinse. Cucumber may have astringent properties, and it may help clear the pores.

16. Face pack: Mixture of equal amounts of cucumber juice and yogurt can help make face pack that helps reduce dry skin and blackheads.

17. Cucumber also contains a range of B vitamins, vitamin A, and antioxidants, including a type known as lignans. Studies have shown that the lignans in cucumber and other foods may help lower the risk of cardiovascular disease and several types of cancer

18. Cucumber contain Antioxidants which help remove substances from the body known as free radicals. Some free radicals come from natural bodily processes, and some come from outside pressures, such as pollution. If too many collect in the body, they can lead to cell damage and various types of disease.

SIDE EFFECTS OF CUCUMBER
Cucumber is safe to eat, but it also comes with some side effects.

1. Digestive problems:
Some people find some types of cucumber hard to digest when consumed.

2. Blood clotting:
Cucumber is relatively high in vitamin K. Eating too much cucumber could affect how a person’s blood clots.
This gives reason why people who use warfarin (Coumadin) or similar blood-thinning drugs not to increase their intake of cucumber or suddenly without consulting a doctor.

3. Allergy:
Some people are allergic to cucumber when consumed. Anyone with a known allergy should avoid all contact with cucumber.

4. Do not consume the fresh plant on which cucumbers grows, only consume cucumber fruits. The cucumber leaves and stem have high concentration of cucurbitacins than the cucumber fruits which can cause toxicity. Rather, the young leaves and stems of the cucumber plant can be cooked as a potherb
CULTIVATION OF CUCUMBER
The cucumber undergo six growing stages- germination, seedling, vegetative, floral, fruit formation, and harvest phases. Most varieties of cucumber can be harvested between 50-70 days . It can be grown in frames or on trellises in greenhouses in cool climates and is cultivated as a field crop and in home gardens in warmer areas.
PROPAGATION: Cucumber are propagated by seeds. High quality, disease resistant varieties seeds should be purchased and planted.
CLIMATE
Cucumbers prefer warm weather with stable climate conditions:

TEMPERATURE: Most species of the gourd family are extremely sensitive to temperatures near freezing, a factor that limits their geographic distribution and area of cultivation. The ideal temperature for growing cucumbers is around 20–25°C during the day and 15°C at night. High temperatures can make cucumbers bitter.

HUMIDITY: Humidity should be around 60–70% during the day and higher at night. High humidity in wet seasons can promote leaf diseases.
LAND PREPARATION
Cucumber plantation requires well prepared and weed free field. To bring soil to fine tilth, 3-4 ploughings must be done before planting. FYM such as cow dung should be mixed with soil to enrich the field. Then beds are prepared having width of 2.5m and at the distance of 60cm.
SOIL
Cucumbers grow best in well-drained, fertile, sandy loam to sandy clay loam soil with a pH of 5.5–6.8. Avoid infertile or poorly drained soils, and locations with very high rainfall.
PLANTING/ SPACING: Cucumber seedlings planted in nurseries can be transplanted to the field or left in the nursery to produce fruits. Spacing recommendations for cucumbers vary somewhat among states and growing regions. For example, in United States, a recommended planting spacing of 48 to 60 inch rows, with a plant-to-plant, in-row spacing of 6 to 12 inches is used.
In Nigeria, two seeds are sown per place of bed of 2.5m wide and spacing of 60cm between seeds. The seeds are sown at the depth of 2-3cm.

METHOD OF SOWING:
• Low tunnel technology: This technology is used in temperate regions to produce early yield of cucumber in early summer. It helps to protect the crop from cold season i.e. in the month of December and January. Beds of 2.5m width are sown in the month of December.
• Dibbling method
• Basing method
• Layout in ring method.

WATERING
Cucumbers grown in low humidity conditions need a lot of water. The plant has a higher demand for moisture during pollination and fruit development. A water shortage can cause misshapen fruits, abortion, or less vigor to sprout secondary shoots. The fruits can also become bitter if exposed to uneven watering conditions.

FERTILIZER
Cucumbers require moderately low amounts of nitrogen (N) and higher amounts of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). NPK fertilizer can increase fruit density, chlorophyll content, and shelf life. Typically, Split application are usually done. About half of the fertilizer is applied to the soil before planting or banded over the row at planting. The remaining amounts are put on as one or two early season sidedress applications, usually when plants begin to vine out

WEEDS CONTROL
Weed control are important management practices in cucumber farming. Cover crops and mulches, cultivation and hand weeding, and herbicides usage can be used to control weeds.

TRAINING AND PRUNING
Training and pruning of cucumber plants are important to promote proper growth, increase yield and improve fruit quality. Trellis or stake systems are best used for training cucumber.
In training cucumber, the trellis are used to hold the vines vertically. The trellis help save spaces, improve air circulation and make harvesting easy.

PRUNING: Cucumber plant should be pruned regularly so as to remove excess foliage, improve air circulation, and expose the plant to direct sunlight for fruit production. Lateral branches, sucker and damaged or diseased parts should be pruned.

GROWTH SEASON
The growth season for cucumbers is relatively short, lasting 55–60 days for field-grown varieties, and over 70 days for greenhouse varieties.

HARVESTING
Harvesting are done using the plants physiological factors such as colour, size, texture and sugar content.
Plants start yielding in about 45-50 days after sowing. Mainly 10-12 harvestings can be done. Harvesting is mainly done when the seed of cucumber are soft and the fruits are green and young. Harvesting is done with the help of sharp knife or any sharp object. The fruits must not be damaged during harvesting to give them a longer shelf life.

SEED PRODUCTION
Brown color fruits are best for seed production. For seed extraction, fruit pulp is taken out in fresh water for 1-2 days for the easy separation of seeds. The seeds are then rubbed with hands and as a result heavy seeds will settle down in water and then they are preserved for further use.

PEST AND DISEASES OF CUCUMBER
PESTS

SQUASH BEETLE:
The squash beetle (Epilachna borealis) is one of two species of Coccinellidae that eat plant material rather than other insects. The squash beetle feeds upon the leaves of cucurbits. The other species, the Mexican bean beetle (Epilachna varivestis), a close relative of the squash beetle, is a serious bean pest.

SPIDER MITES
Two-spotted spider mites (Tetranychus urticae) can be a serious problem on cucurbits, especially on watermelons and cantaloupes, during hot, dry weather. These tiny mites feed on the contents of individual cells of the leaves causing a pale yellow and reddish-brown spots ranging in size from small specks to large whitish, stippled areas on the upper sides of leaves. The mites can kill or seriously stunt the growth of plants. Because of their small size, spider mites are hard to detect until vines are damaged with hundreds of mites on each leaf.
CONTROL: Spray insecticides at planting or as a foliar spray. Insecticidal soaps also offer adequate control when applied before the numbers are too high. Do not spray plants in direct sun or if plants are drought-stressed.
Spider mites can also be controlled with neem oil extract.
Mites can be removed with a strong spray of water. Predatory mites and beneficial insects, such as lady beetles and minute pirate bugs, are important natural controls measure.

MELON APHIDS
Melon aphids (Aphis gossyppi) and several other aphid species attack cucurbits, particularly melons and cucumbers. Melon aphids vary in size and colour from light yellow to green to black. Some are winged, while others are wingless.
They are found chiefly on the underside of the leaves, where they suck the sap from the plants and cause a reduction in the quality and quantity of the fruit. Infested leaves curl downward and may turn brown and die. The melon aphid also is one of the chief vectors in transmitting  Cucumber mosaic virus. Usually, cucurbits are not attacked by aphids until the vines form runners.

CONTROL: natural controls using beneficial insects are extremely important in keeping aphid populations in check. In addition to natural enemies, Leaves can be sprayed with soapy water, then rinse with clear water. Spraying with insecticidal soap, planting in aluminum foil-covered beds, and filling yellow pans with water to trap the aphids are also effective control measures.

WHITEFLIES
Whiteflies are found in groups and at the underside of plant leaves.
Whiteflies are a common pest of cucurbit crops and may cause silverleaf disorder and vector (or spread) numerous harmful viruses. Whiteflies also weaken plants by feeding on their sap. They excreted Sticky honeydew as they feed. The excreted honeydew falls to lower parts of the plants and often develops and becomes covered with a dark-coloured sooty mold. This occurrence reduces the photosynthetic capability of the plant and can result in reduced yields.

CONTROL: Whiteflies can be managed culturally by providing proper nutrition and irrigation for plants. Also, reflective mulches can be used against whitefly feeding and disease transmission.
In addition, there are many beneficial insects that help manage whitefly populations, such as lacewings, bigeyed bugs, lady beetles, and minute pirate bugs. Many products effective against aphids are also effective in managing whiteflies.

MELONWORMS
The melonworm (Diaphania hyalinata) is a mid-summer to fall pest of summer and winter squash and cucumber in the United States. The pests migrate from tropical regions of Florida each year and usually arrive by late June or July to North Carolina. Higher population levels are usually observed in fall-planted cucurbits. After eggs are laid, the larvae (caterpillars) will undergo five instars before pupating. The later instars are pale to dark green with two horizontal cream-coloured stripes down the length of their back. The larvae feed on the leaf tissue, often leaving the veins intact, creating a skeletonized look. It is common to see leaves rolled or folded over to serve as a hiding spot as the melonworm pupates.

CONTROL: The melonworm usually completes its lifecycle within thirty days.
Spring planted cucurbits will escape most melonworm damage. In fall-planted gardens, careful scouting will help reduce infestations and damage. Many beneficial insects prey on or parasitize the melonworm, such as parasitic wasps, tachinid flies, ground beetles, and soldier beetles; therefore, farmers should avoid applying broad-spectrum chemicals, such as pyrethroids and neonicotinoids for melonworm management. Formulations of Bt and neem extracts can be used to manage melonworm and have less of an impact on beneficial insect populations.

DISEASES
The plants are susceptible to a number of bacterial and fungal diseases, including downy mildew,  anthracnose, and Fusarium wilt etc.

POWDERY MILDEW
It is a common fungal disease that appears as a white powder on the leaves, causing them to shrivel and stunting growth. Drought-stressed plants are more likely to get this disease.

DOWNY MILDEW
A fungal disease that causes yellowish spots on the upper surface of leaves, and a fuzzy, purplish-gray mold-looking growth on the undersides of leaves.

ANGULAR LEAF SPOT
It is a bacterial disease that causes small, water-soaked spots on the leaves that eventually become larger and angular in shape.

BACTERIAL WILT
A disease that primarily affects cucumbers and melons, but can also affect tomatoes, peppers, potatoes, eggplants, and corn. Cucumber beetles transmit the disease by creating wounds in the plant for the bacteria to enter.

CUCUMBER ANTHRACNOSE
Anthracnose is a fungal disease that not only affects cucumbers but also other cucurbits and beans (Phaseolus). They are caused by Colletotrichum fungi. The symptoms include small brown spots and marks on the foliage, which rapidly grow in size and develop a yellow edge, as well as pink mould developing on the stems and stalks. Anthracnose can be spread by contaminated seed and airborne spores and is encouraged by warm and moist conditions, such as when grown in glasshouses, but it can affect outdoor grown plants as well.

CUCUMBER SCLEROTINIA DISEASE
This disease is also known as white mold. It is caused by the fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. It is a fungal disease that can cause problems when growing cucumbers. It also affects both vegetable and ornamental plants. Sclerotinia fungi can unfortunately live for a long time in the soil. It primarily occurs as a stem blight or fruit rot.
The disease may cause cucumber plants to deteriorate rapidly. It also show symptoms of yellowish foliage, wilting, rotting stems and a white fluffy substance forming on the stems and fruit. PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: To prevent cucumber sclerotinia disease, grow cucumbers in new compost each year. Currently, there is no remedy and infected plants must be destroyed.

CUCUMBER MOSAIC VIRUS
Cucumber mosaic virus is a common viral disease that can affect not only cucumbers and cucurbits but also spinach (Spinacia oleracea), lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and some ornamental plants.
Symptoms include distorted and yellowing cucumber leaves with a mosaic pattern and reduced plant growth, resulting in reduced yields and misshaped fruits.

Mosaic virus is most often spread by insects, especially aphids. However, it can also be transmitted by infected garden tools and after handling other cucumber plants with the virus.

CUCUMBER ROT
Cucumber rot can affect different parts of the cucumber plant from the roots (root rot) to the stem (basal stem rot).

Root rot encompasses several fungal diseases that target the roots of cucumber plants with the worst being black root rot (Phomopsis sclerotioides). It often occurs later in the growing season, clear signs on inspection are rapid wilting as well as brown and black lesions on the roots.

CUCUMBER GREY MOULD
Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) is a common fungal disease that can affect numerous plants, including cucumbers. It normally affects already struggling plants or gets in through wounds, but the high humidity in a greenhouse or rainy season can increase its likelihood.

The main symptoms include grey-brown mould on the stems, stalks and fruit, which often occurs after pruning cucumbers and causes dieback above the infected area.
CONTROL: Remove and destroy affected plants.

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Recycling of waste materials is now gaining a lot of ground globally. Lots of waste materials are now produced during human activities, animal wastes and crop residues which are recycled into new valuable materials. This valuable products are rich carbonaceous products that are utilized in agricultural production.
Carbonaceous materials are any organic material that contains a large amount of carbon content. Examples include coal, hydrocarbon petroleum products (e.g., crude oil, natural gas), carbonaceous gases, biochar and some metals such as carbon steel and carbon alloys.
Biochar is a term for carbonaceous materials which are sustainable fuels, soil remediation, and carbon sequestration. Today, biochar has gained the global attention as a soil amendment and provide other benefits especially in agricultural production. It is a stable solid, rich in carbon, that is made from organic waste material or biomass that is partially combusted in the presence of limited oxygen.
By defination, Biochar is refered to as charcoal and carbon-rich material produced by partial oxidation (pyrolysis at ≤700 °C in the absence or limited supply of oxygen) of carbonaceous organic sources such as wood and plants, excluding fossil fuel products ( petroleum). It is rich in recalcitrant carbon that can persist in soils for years or decades, and even millennia.
Biochar has the ability to turn useless wastes into valuable products. This process is called  valorization.
“Valorization ” means returning value to wasted materials. That value might be as an industrial additive, a new product, or even as a form of clean energy. The concept of valorization redefines the very idea of waste, applying instead a more dynamic understanding of how material changes over the course of its life cycle as a product.

WHAT IS BIOCHAR MADE UP FROM.
To have a better understanding of what biochar is and its properties, there is need to understand the following
1) What it was made from (i.e. the feedstock), and
2) The temperature at which it was made (i.e. 300-700°C).

COMMON FEEDSTOCKS
Biochar is a carbon-rich material that is made from biomass ( that is, materials derived from plants and animals called organic) through a thermochemical conversion process known as pyrolysis.
Thermochemical conversion can be applied to one or more kinds of waste, individually called “inputs” or “feedstocks.” Some common feedstocks include the following:

a. food waste
b. sewage sludge (also known as “bio-solids”)
c. agricultural by-products like crop straw and residues, animal manures, fruit pits, twigs, leaf litter, forestry wastes, and bagasse
d. cuttings and trimmings from parks and residences

These materials and methods used to produce biochar bring about the wide variety of chemical and physical properties possessed by biochar products.

Every thermochemical process results in a different final product (or “output”) when applied to a different feedstock. Three basic categories of outputs are derived from the thermochemical processes depending on the combination of feedstocks and methodologies used . Such outputs include: gas, liquid, and solid products. One methodology can lead to a combination of all three product types, depending on factors like temperature, air content, and pressure.

GAS PRODUCTS: Gas products are derived in a process called gasification. Gasification of waste biomass can result in industrially valuable gas products like light alkalines and olefins, typically derived from petroleum ( fossil fuel). These gases can be used directly for heat, power generation, electricity, transportation, as well as chemical and plastic production. It is also a potential source for pure hydrogen that can be used to generate green hydrogen energy.

LIQUID PRODUCTS: Liquid products can be made through thermochemical conversion in processes called Pyrolysis and catalytic upgrading. These two methods are used to convert waste biomass into bio-oil or bio-diesel. Pure hydrogen can also be produced in this way, which can be added to fossil fuels like gasoline or liquid natural gas to improve efficiency and lower overall GHG emissions. Other bio-fuels like mixed alcohols, ethanol, and methanol can also be made using this method.

SOLID PRODUCTS: When organic or inorganic waste are treated thermochemically, solid material or residue are usually left behind. The subjection of biomass to full pyrolysis result is biochar production..

TYPES OF THERMOCHEMICAL CONVERSION
As mentioned above, three main types of thermochemical conversion were mentioned.

1. pyrolysis
2. gasification
3. combustion

Each process requires different levels of oxygen to occur. PYROLYSIS : pyrolysis refers to the chemical decomposition of organic material when exposed to elevated temperatures in an atmosphere with restricted levels of oxygen. it occurs when there is none avialability of oxygen.
GASIFICATION: Occurs when there is a limited amount of oxygen, while
COMBUSTION : will only occur in the presence of oxygen.

IMPORTANCE OF BIOCHAR

1. It has been used by humans for over two thousand years as a soil enhancer or ammendments.

2. It helped to increase crop yields while sustaining essential soil biodiversity.

3. It improving soil health,

4. it is used to raise soil pH,

5. it is used to remediate polluted soils. 

6. It can be used on its own or mixed with other soil amendments. 

7. Carbon storage: Biochar is a very effective way to capture and store carbon in a solid state
8. Greenhouse gas emissions: Biochar can help lower greenhouse gas emissions by storing carbon. 

9. Water treatment: Biochar can be used for water treatment. 

10. Land reclamation: Biochar can be used for land reclamation in degraded soils.

11. It is used to increase soil aeration.

12. It is used to reduce nutrient leaching and reduce soil acidity.

13. It can be used for water retention in soil,

14. It is used as an additive for animal fodder.

15. It may be a means to mitigate climate change due to its potential of sequestering carbon with minimal effort. The process by which it is manufactured do sequester a billion tons of carbon annually and hold it in the soil for thousands of years, where it is most beneficial.

17. It refroms  irrigation  and  fertilizer requirements.

18. Fuel slurry: Biochar mixed with liquid media such as water or organic liquids (ethanol, etc) is an emerging fuel type known as biochar-based slurry. These slurries are fuels powering generators and providing electricity.

19. It enhances soil structure and aggregation

20. It reduces nitrous oxide emissions

21. It improves soil porosity

22. It improves soil electrical conductivity

23. It improves microbial properties

24. It is used for composting by promoting microbial activity, which accelerates the composting process. In addition, it also helps  reduce  the compost’s ammonia losses, bulk density and odour.

From all the bountiful benefits of biochar, it also comes with some negative effects such as over application harming soil biota, reducing available water content, altering soil pH, reduce pesticide efficacy and increasing salinity etc.

PRODUCTION OF BIOCHAR
Biochar, a charcoal-like substance made by burning organic material from agricultural and forestry wastes ( that is, biomass) in a controlled process called pyrolysis. During the process, contaminants are reduced and carbon is stored. Organic materials, such as wood chips, leaf litter or dead plants, are burned in a container with very little oxygen. As the materials burn, they release little or no contaminating fumes. The organic material is then converted into biochar, which is a stable form of carbon that cannot easily escape into the atmosphere. Energy or heat produced during the production process can be captured and used as a form of clean energy.
Clean feedstocks with 10 to 20 percent moisture and high lignin content are usually used such as those mentioned above, field residues and woody biomass. Contaminated feedstocks such as feedstocks from railway embankments or contaminated land, can introduce toxins into the soil, drastically increase soil pH and/or inhibit plants from absorbing minerals. The most common contaminants are heavy metals such as cadmium, copper, chromium, lead, zinc, mercury, nickel and arsenic and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons.

PROPERTIES OF BIOCHAR

1. Biochar is by far more efficient at converting carbon into a stable form
2.It is a clean source of energy than other forms of charcoal.
 3. biochar is black in colour just like charcoal.

4. It is highly porous.

5. It is light in weight.

6. It is fine-grained and has a large surface area.

7. Approximately 70% of its composition is carbon. The remaining 30% consists of nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen among other elements.

8. Its chemical composition varies depending on the feedstocks used to make it and methods used to heat it up.

HOW BIOCHAR SEQUESTER CARBON AND MITIGATE CLIMATE CHANGE

Feedstocks used in making biochar ,that is plant biomass are composed of carbon within their tissues. If these plant biomass are allowed to decompose naturally, the decomposition process would release higher amounts of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. But by heating the feedstocks and transforming their carbon content into a stable structure that does not react with oxygen during pyrolysis, biochar technology ultimately reduces carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, storing the carbon within the biochar product.

Biochar also mitigate climate change by enriching the soil, reducing the need for chemical fertilizers and improving soil health. It is environmentally friendly and also lowers greenhouse gas emissions. By enriching the soil and reducing heavy metal contamination, it stimulates the growth of plants, which consume carbon dioxide and produce safer food for consumption. The many benefits of biochar for both climate, the environment and agricultural systems make it a sustainable tool for regenerative agriculture.

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Papayas a fruit crop originate from Central America where the indigenes ate papayas and used them for medicinal purposes. In the 1500s and 1600s, Spanish and Portuguese colonizers brought the seeds to other tropical areas of the globe, including the African countries, Philippines and India.
Papaya belongs to the family  Caricaceae, a small family of plants that comprise only six genera. The genus Carica L., intern comprises about 22 species that grow throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. They can be characterise as a poorly branched trees or shrubs as described for Carica papaya.
Papayas grow best where there is plentiful rainfall but little long-term flooding. Freezing temperatures may damage a papaya crop.
Today, Hawaii, the Philippines, India, Ceylon, Australia, and tropical regions in Africa are the top papaya-producing regions. Smaller papaya-farming operations still exist in Central and South America.
Papaya is called by many different names all over the globe. In Australia, it’s called a pawpaw. In southern Asia, it’s sometimes called a kepaya, lapaya, or tapaya. Its name in French is sometimes “figueir des iles,” or fig of the islands. Some Spanish names for papaya include “melon zapote,” “fruta bomba,” or “mamona.” In Nigeria, the Yoruba tribe calls it porpor.
But the major common name for papaya plant and fruits is ‘pawpaw’.

DESCRIPTION
The papaya plant is considered as an herbaceous  perennial tree.
Papaya has the potential to grow up to a height of between 2 to 10 m, and can reach maturity within a year. As it grows very fast, its economic life is also short and is around 3–4 years.
THE TREE: The papaya has an appearance of a tree but can also be refered to as a shrub. It has a cylindrical single stem which is hallow at the middle with spongy-fibrous tissues. The papaya tree hardly branch. Branching can only occurs when the main shoot is damaged/cut or the plant reaches to maturity, thereby new branches start appearing from the lower-end of the stem.
THE LEAVES: The leaves are large, lobed or palmated. The leaves appear in alternate fashion at the apical end of the shoot leaving the stem in the middle to lower region free from leaves with the leaves scares very conspicuous. 

THE FLOWERS: The papaya tree is polygamous in nature, a behaviour that is governed not only by genetics but also the environment such as temperature, draught or a variety of other climatic conditions.
Papaya tree can produce only a male (staminate), or only female (pistillate) or hermaphroditic (bisexual) flowers; or in the latter case even a tendency to either a female of male sex could manifests.

The Female and bisexual flowers are waxy, ivory white, and borne on short penducles in leaf axils, along the main stem. Flowers are solitary or small cymes of 3 individuals. Ovary position is superior. Prior to opening, bisexual flowers are tubular, while female flowers are pear shaped. Since, bisexual plants produce the most desirable fruit and are self–pollinating, they are preferred over female or male plants. A male papaya is distinguished by the smaller flowers borne on long stalks. They are unfruitful. Female flowers of papaya are pear shaped when unopened whereas, bisexual flowers are cylindrical”. Papaya start flowering between 5–8 months after planting. And these flowers develop to form the fruit.

THE FRUIT: The papaya fruit are produced from the fertilized ovule which yield in abundance based on the number of fertilized flowers.. The papaya fruit is composed of the skin, pulp and seeds which vary in composition depending on varieties or cultivars. The seeds could vary between 5% and 9%; skin 12–25% and pulp from 70% to 80%. The composition of the fruits could also vary depending on ripening state, with immature ones, for example, producing large amount of latex.

When the fruit ripens, the colour changes to light yellow and produce aroma. The pulp changes colour from white to orange or red. The skin becomes softer to be peeled.
PAPAYA FRUIT RIPENING
Fruit size of papaya do vary from less than 0.5 kg to 3kg. The fruit is mainly consumed fresh when ripened after harvest. Ripening is judged by the approximate percentage of yellowness on its skin, and more accurately by measuring its total soluble solids (TSS) contents with a refractometer. Firmness can also be used to judge ripening. This can be determined by touch or by a texture-measuring device. The firmness is related to the biochemical changes in three fractions of pectins in papayas, and is not a very accurate index of ripeness.

PAPAYA VARIETIES

There are many varieties of papaya in the market, they including:

Kapaho solo (also known as puna solo)

Waimanolo

Higgins

Wilder
Hortus gold

Honey gold

Bettina

Improved Peterson

Sunnybank

Guinea gold

Coorg honeydew

Washington

BENEFITS OF PAPAYA

1. Green papayas can be consumed when peeled or mixed in as a salad or in soups, which are quite popular in South-east Asia.

2. PROTECTION AGAINST HEART DISEASE: Papayas contain high levels of antioxidants such as vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin E. Diets high in antioxidants may reduce the risk of heart disease. The antioxidants prevent the oxidation of cholesterol. When cholesterol oxidizes, it may not create blockages that lead to heart disease.

3. Papaya is a delicious fruit. A good source of nutrients such as its high content of vitamins A, B, and C.

4. It contains proteolytic enzymes, such as papain and chymopapain and also have antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral properties.

5. Papayas have gained popularity as a natural home treatment, and for their use in skin and hair products.

6. WRINKLE REDUCTION:
Papaya is rich in antioxidants, such as lycopene, that may defend against the visible signs of aging caused by free radicals. The antioxidants can help fight free radical damage which may help make the skin remain smooth and youthful.

7. Papaya may also help improve the elasticity of the skin. This improvement in skin elasticity could minimize the appearance of wrinkles.

8. A  mixture of antioxidants including vitamin C and lycopene can help reduce the depth of facial wrinkles.

9. ACNE CONTROL:
The enzymes papain and chymopapain in papaya can decrease inflammation. The protein-dissolving papain can be found in many exfoliating products. These products help reduce acne by removing dead skin cells that can clog pores.

10. Papain can also remove damaged keratin that can build up on the skin and form small bumps. papain is also a treatment for scarring.

11. Retinol found in papaya is a topical form of vitamin A, can help treat and prevent inflammatory acne lesions.

12. MELASMA TREATMENT:
Papaya is a popular remedy for melasma. Studies have shown that the enzymes, beta-carotene, vitamins, and phytochemicals in papaya have skin lightening properties.

13. Daily application of cold-pressed papaya seed oil may help lighten dark spots.

14. HAIR CONDITIONING: the vitamin A in papaya can have positive effects on hair by helping the scalp produce sebum which nourishes, strengthens, and protects the hair.

15. HAIR GROWTH:
Studies have shown that compounds in papaya, including lycopene, are “a potent hair growth stimulating compound.”

16. DANDRUFF PREVENTION:
One of the main causes of dandruff is a yeast-like fungus known as malassezia. studies had shown that the antifungal properties of papaya seeds can assist in both controlling and preventing dandruff.

17. WEIGHT LOSS;
Eating papaya on an empty stomach can help with weight loss, improve heart health, enhance skin glow, ease constipation, and reduce cancer risks. However, cautions include avoiding excessive consumption of green papaya due to potential uterine contractions and monitoring for allergic condition.

18. LOW IN CALORIES :Papaya is a low-calorie fruit that is an excellent source of fiber, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and vitamins like A, C, E, and K. Those on a weight-loss regimen may find this fruit particularly beneficial due to its fiber content and low-calorie count.

19. REGULATION OF BLOOD SUGAR LEVEL
The nutrients in papaya can help normalize cholesterol levels and improve blood flow, reducing the risk of heart attacks and strokes. Papaya, with its low sugar content and high fiber, helps in regulating blood sugar levels. This is beneficial for diabetics and prevents hypertension by maintaining stable blood sugar levels. The papain enzyme in papaya acts as a natural pain reliever and helps control inflammation through cytokine production.

20. PREVENTS CANCER: Antioxidants in papaya, such as lycopene, inhibit cancer cell growth and reduce oxidative stress, lowering cancer risks. In addition, papaya is amazing for women’s health. Papaya’s carotene can stimulate the uterus and help regulate the menstrual cycle, reducing period cramps and promoting regularity.

SIDE EFFECTS OF EATING PAPAYA

1. There are certain side effects to consider when consuming papaya. One should be cautious when consuming green or semi-ripe papaya, as it contains high levels of latex. This concentrated form of latex may induce uterine contractions, which can lead to unplanned abortion, particularly in pregnant women.

2. Excessive consumption may damage the esophageal lining and cause allergic reactions due to its latex content.

3. People with low blood pressure and those prone to food allergies should be cautious.

4. Papaya seeds is known to reduce sperm count, therefore, should also be consumed with care.

PAPAYA FARMING
Papaya farming involves growing the tropical fruit in the right conditions of soil, climate, and water:

CLIMATE
Papaya grows best in warm to hot climates with temperatures between 20–35°C. It is sensitive to frost and strong winds.

SOIL
Papaya grows best in well-drained, light, sandy loam soil with a pH of 5.5–6.7 and lots of organic matter. The soil should not be sticky or calcareous.

RAINFALL
Papaya needs adequate irrigation to prevent drought and frost damage. It does best with an even distribution of annual rainfall of over 1000 mm.

PLANTING
Papaya is usually propagated by seed, and the seeds should be treated with a fungicide to control diseases.
It can also be propagated by tissue culture. The seed rate is 250-300 g./ha. The seedlings can be raised in nursery beds 3m. long, 1m. wide and 10 cm high as well as in pots or polythene bags. The seeds after being treated with fungicides are sown 1 cm. deep in rows 10 cm apart and covered with fine compost or leaf mould. Light irrigation is provided during the morning hours. The nursery beds are covered with polythene sheets or dry paddy straw to protect the seedlings. About 15-20 cm. ( about 45–60 days) tall seedlings are chosen for transplanting.

PLANTING SEASON:
Papaya is planted around February-March, June-July and between October-November .

SPACING:
A spacing of 1.8 x 1.8 m. is normally followed.  However higher density cultivation with spacing of 1.5 x 1.5 m./ha enhances the returns to the farmer and is recommended.

FERTILIZING
Papaya plant needs heavy doses of manures and fertilizers. Apart from the basal dose of manures ( at 10 kg./plant) applied in the pits,
the general recommendation is 200:200:400 gm/plant/year of NPK fertilizer is required. Chlorine-free fertilizers should be used because papaya is sensitive to chlorine. Also, micro-nutrients should be applied inform of ZnSO4 (0.5%) and H2 BO3 (0.1%). They are needed inorder to increase growth and yield characters.

THINNING:
In dioecious varieties, all male plants should be removed except for one for every 10–12 female plants. Male plants flower earlier and can be identified by their long flowering stalks.

WEEDING:
Weeding can be done by hoeing at the first year to check weed growth. This should be done on regular basis especially around the plants. Also, pre-emergence herbicide can be applied two months after transplanting for effective control of weeds for a period of four months. Earthing up should also be done before or after the onset of monsoon to avoid water-logging and also to help the plants to stand erect.

INTER-CROPPING:
Papaya can be intercropped with leguminous crops followed by non-leguminous crops. Also, shallow rooted crops can be intercropped, followed by deep rooted crops. No intercrops should be done after the onset of flowering stage.

PAPAYA PESTS AND DISEASES
INSECT PESTS

The insect pests mostly observed in papaya plantation are fruit flies (Bactrocera cucurbitae), grasshopper (Poekilocerus pictus), aphids (Aphis gossypii), red spider mite (Tetranychus cinnabarinus), stem borer (Dasyses rugosellus) and grey weevil (Myllocerus viridans). In all cases the infected parts need to be destroyed.

APHIDS:
DAMAGE SYMPTOMS: They suck sap from leaves and cause leaf curling and distortion. Also causes premature drop of fruits. And they are vector for papaya ringspot virus
CONTROL: Remove and destroy damaged parts of the plant
.Use  yellow sticky trap 
.Spray Neem extract 0.3% at 2.5 – 3 ml/lit water. Also Chemical control with insecticides can be done.

WHITEFLY :
DAMAGE SYMPTOMS: Yellowing, downward curling, and crinkling of leaves (vector for papaya leaf curl virus).
Causes shedding of leaves
Sooty mold development on leaf surface due to honeydew secretion
CONTROL: Removal of alternate hosts, maintain field sanitation, Use yellow sticky trap, Spray Neem oil at 1 – 2 ml/lit water and spray insecticides .

RED SPIDER MITE :
DAMAGE SYMPTOMS: The presence of white or yellowish speckles on the leaf,
Webbing of affected leaf surface and causes scaring on fruits.
CONTROL: Spray Bio-acaricide at 1 – 2 ml/liter water or insecticides.

ROOT-KNOT NEMATODE :
DAMAGE SYMPTOMS: Yellowing and shedding of leaves, premature drop of affected fruits, presence of galls on roots
CONTROL: Select seedlings without root galls for transplanting, crop rotation,
Mahua cakes can be applied to control nematodes.
Mix well-decomposed compost with 2 kg of Multiplex safe root and broadcast in the field. Also, insecticides can be sprayed.

FRUIT FLY :
DAMAGE SYMPTOMS: The larvae feed on the internal portion of semi-ripe fruits by puncturing, presence of decayed patches and oozing of fluids on affected fruits, infected fruits turn yellow and fall prematurely
CONTROL: Dispose off the dropped-infested fruits,
Summer plowing to destroy pupa, Use fruit fly trap . Also, insecticides can be sprayed.

MEALYBUG :
DAMAGE SYMPTOMS: Presence of white cottony masses on leaf, stem, branches, and fruits,
Infected portions become shiny and sticky due to honeydew secretion which causes sooty mold development.
CONTROL: Uproot the infested plants, keep the field weed-free
Spray solution of Sarvodaya soap to control mealy bugs and spray insecticides.

DISEASES

The main diseases reported are powdery mildew (Oidium caricae), anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides), damping off and stem rot.

DAMPING OFF
It is a fungal disease and mostly common in nursery beds, causing the death of seedlings. The stem may start to rot at the soil line. Infected seedlings may wilt.
TREATMENT: Treat 1 kg seeds with 10 gm of Pseudomonas fluorescens mixed in 10 ml of water.
Also, Spray Fungicide or Matco Fungicide.

POWDERY MILDEW : It is a fungal disease that results in symptoms such as
White or grayish powdery growth on the upper leaf surface, flower stalk, and fruits
Severely infected leaves turn yellow or brown, curl, dry up, droop, and fall off
TREATMENT: Spray Pseudomonas fluorescence at 2.5 ml/lit water.
Spray fermented buttermilk (1:3 ratio of buttermilk & water) twice or thrice with 10 days interval. Also, spray fungicides.

ANTHRACNOSE
Affects leaves, flowers, and fruits resulting in drop-off
Small, black, or brown circular spots appear on leaves.
Infected fruits may develop dark, sunken lesions later covered with pinkish, slimy spore mass.
Withering and defoliation of leaves may occur.
TREATMENT: Spray fungicide.Fungicide.

PAPAYA RINGSPOT VIRUS

Vector: Aphids 
Transmission: Sap, grafts 
Plants show symptoms of d
downward and inward curling of leaf margin, leaf distortion .Mosaic pattern of light and dark green areas on leaves. The presence of concentric circular rings on the fruit surface
TREATMENT AND CONTROL: Do not grow cucurbits around papaya field but plant sorghum or maize as a barrier crop. Also, agrochemicals like Geolife no virus, VC 100 etc can be sprayed on plants. Also, control vector aphids.

PAPAYA LEAF CURL

Vector: Whitefly 
Causes curling and crinkling of leaves. Downward and inward curling of leaf margin.
Affected leaves become brittle, leathery, and distorted
TEATMENT AND CONTROL: Do not grow tomato, or tobacco plants near the field
Also, Spray  agrochemicals like V-Bind Bio viricide , liquid Micronutrient which help to develop resistance to the disease. And control vector whitefly by spraying insecticides.

 ALTERNARIA LEAF SPOT:
Symptoms include: Small, circular, or irregular brown spots with concentric rings surrounded by a yellow halo on the affected leaves.
Defoliation of affected leaves
Circular to oval black lesions appear on the fruit surface
TREATMENT: Spray fungicides.

HARVESTING

The economic life span of papaya trees is 3-4 years. Harvesting of papaya too early or too late might increase the risk of postharvest physiological disorders. The papaya tree starts flowering and sets fruits in about 6 – 7 months. The fruits become ready for harvesting in 10 – 11 months from planting. Fruit ripening is indicated by the change in fruit colour from green to yellowish green. Also, when the latex ceases to be milky and become watery, the fruits are suitable for harvesting. Harvesting should be done by hand using sharp knives. 
The yield varies widely according to variety, soil, climate and management of the orchard. The yield of 75-100 tonnes /ha. is obtained in a season from a papaya orchard depending on spacing and cultural practices.

HARVESTING INDICES:  Fruit colour changes from dark green to light green with a slight tinge of yellow at the apical end

AVERAGE YIELD: Average yield per plant: 30 – 50 kg . Average yield per acre: 12 – 16 tons (1st year); 6 – 8 tons (2nd year) . Yield varies with cultivar.

POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT

 GRADING
Fruits are graded on the basis of their weight, size and colour.

STORAGE
Fruits are highly perishable in nature. They can be stored for a period of 1-3 weeks at a temperature of 10-130 C and 85-90% relative humidity.

  PACKING
Bamboo baskets with banana leaves as lining material are used for carrying the produce from farm to local market.

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When water comes down as precipitation, some of the water will seep down into the ground where it stay for some time until plants take it up. Som seeps down below ( infiltrates) to reach the underground water, some moves horizontally to reach nearby water while some makes its way back to the surface as surface water .
The process by which water from the ground’s surface enters the soil is called water infiltration.. It is a key part of the water cycle, and is commonly studied in hydrology and soil sciences.
The infiltration capacity is defined as the maximum rate of infiltration. It is most often measured in meters per day but can also be measured in other units of distance over time if necessary. The infiltration capacity decreases as the soil moisture content of soils surface layers increases. If the precipitation rate exceeds the infiltration rate, runoff will usually occur unless there is some physical barrier.

HOW INFILTRATION OCCUR
Water can get to the soil through various means. It can get to the soil through precipitation, irrigation water, rise of water table and also from surface water bodies. The water cycle is an important aspect of water that infiltrates into the soil.
The water cycle starts when water vapor condenses in the clouds and falls to Earth as rain, snow, sleet, or hail. This water can move in several different ways. It can be collected in one spot, runoff, infiltrate through the ground or be taken up by plants or animals. This water returns to vapor by evaporation or transpiration until it condenses again and starts the cycle over. This water from rain or irrigation or other sources enters the soil through porous areas, where the soil grains have enough space for water to pass between them. The water then percolates through the soil and rock until it reaches a saturated zone, where the water table is located. 

CAUSES OF INFILTRATION
Infiltration is caused by factors such as; gravity, capillary forces, adsorption, and osmosis. Many soil characteristics can also play a role in determining the rate at which infiltration occurs. Such soil characteristics include soil texture, soil porosity, compaction, bulk density, Precipitation, Soil moisture content; Organic materials in soils; Land cover; soil structure, vegetation types, and soil temperature. etc.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT INFILTRATION

1. PRECIPITATION:
Rainfall leads to faster infiltration rates than any other precipitation event, such as snow or sleet. At the beginning of a rainfall, infiltration rates are usually higher preceded by a dry period, and decrease as the rain continues.
When precipitation occurs, infiltration increases until the ground reaches saturation, at which point the infiltration capacity is reached. After which infiltration slows down.
This precipitation – infiltration relationships depend on factors such as the rainfall intensity ,amount, type, duration and the vegetation properties of the local area. For example, the duration of rainfall can impacts infiltration capacity when at the initially state of rainfall, infiltration will occur rapidly as the soil is unsaturated, but as the rain continues, the soil will reach a state of saturation at which infiltration rate slows down. If the rain continues, the soil continues to becomes more saturated, leading to runoff. Also, if rainfall occurs on wet soils, runoff will occur.

2 SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
a. SOIL POROSITY:
Soil porosity has a direct effect on infiltration. The higher the soil pore space, the higher the infiltration rate and vise versa. When soils have
higher porosity meaning more pore space then the rate of infiltration becomes higher. for example, coarse soils like sandy soils.
Also, Soils that have smaller pore sizes, such as clay, have lower infiltration capacity and slower infiltration rates than soils that have large pore sizes, such as sands. One exception to this rule is when the clay is present in dry conditions, in this case, the soil can develop large cracks which lead to higher infiltration capacity.
Soil porosity may be determined by Pore size distribution, soil texture and the subsoil horizons.
Dense subsoil horizons with low permeability can restrict rainwater infiltration. Deep tillage can improve subsoil permeability and allow more rainwater to infiltrate. 

b. SOIL COMPACTION: Soil compaction also impacts infiltration capacity. When soils are compacted due to for example heavy machine movement on soils, this results in decreased porosity within the soils, which decreases infiltration capacity.
It should be noted that large pores are more effective at moving water through the soil than smaller pores. When these pores are sealed up as a result of compaction, infiltration rates will be reduced. This can significantly lead to increased runoff and flooding and poor water quality.

c. HYDROPHOBIC SOILS: Hydrophobic soil is soil that repels water instead of absorbing it. It is caused by a waxy residue that coat the soil particles, making it difficult for water to penetrate.
Hydrophobic soil can be common in sandy soils, dried-out potting mixes, and soils with unrotted organic matter.
Hydrophobic soils can develop after wildfires have happened, which can greatly diminish or completely prevent infiltration from occurring. Such soils have a lower rate of water infiltration than non-hydrophobic soils. This is because water molecules are attracted to each other by cohensive force and have a weak ability to bond with the waxy soil particles. Therefore, droplets of water are formed with a high contact angle. This high surface tension of the water prevents the water droplets from spreading out over a large area.

d. SOIL MOISTURE CONTENT:
Saturated soils have no capacity to hold more water. This means that infiltration capacity has been reached and the rate of infiltration cannot increase beyond this point. This leads to much more surface runoff. When soil is partially saturated then infiltration can occur at a moderate rate and fully unsaturated soils have the highest infiltration capacity.

e. ORGANIC MATERIALS IN SOILS:
Organic materials like manure and plant residue which decompose to form organic matter and humus can improve soil infiltration by improving soil structure. Organic materials bind soil particles together into aggregates, which improves soil structure. When soil structure is improved, water flow downward through the soil easily and also improve the ability of the soil to absorb and hold water. This makes organic matter to improve infiltration rate.
Vegetation contains roots that extend into the soil which create cracks and fissures in the soil. This create rapid infiltration and increased infiltration capacity. Vegetation can also reduce the surface compaction of the soil which again allows for increased infiltration. When no vegetation is present, infiltration rates can be very low, which can lead to excessive runoff and increased erosion levels. Similarly to vegetation, animals that burrow in the soil also create cracks in the soil structure. Thus, increasing infiltration rate.
f. IMPERVIOUS SURFACES:
Some land areas are usually covered with impervious surface or impermeable surfaces especially during construction. Example is pavement, tired areas etc. infiltration cannot occur at such land areas because water cannot infiltrate through an impermeable surface. This can leads to increased runoff. Areas that are impermeable often have drainages that drain directly into water bodies, which means no infiltration occurs.
g. LAND COVER:
Vegetative cover over the land also have great impact on the infiltration capacity. Vegetative cover can lead to more interception of precipitation, which can decrease intensity of rain droplets leading to less runoff, more interception and increased infiltration rate. Increased abundance of vegetation also leads to higher levels of evapotranspiration which can decrease the amount of infiltration rate.  Debris from vegetation such as leaf cover can also increase the infiltration rate by protecting the soils from intense precipitation events. Trees have strong roots that can penetrate deep into the soil, which promotes infiltration.

In semi-arid savannas and grasslands, the infiltration rate of a particular soil depends on the percentage of the ground covered by litter, and the basal cover of perennial grass tufts. On sandy loam soils, the infiltration rate under a litter cover can be nine times higher than on bare surfaces. The low rate of infiltration in bare areas is due mostly to the presence of a soil crust or surface seal. Infiltration through the base of a tuft is rapid and the tufts funnel water toward their own roots.

h. SLOPE
Infiltration increases with increasing slope gradients and runoff decreases.
When the slope of the land is steeper, runoff occurs more readily which leads to lower infiltration rates. Gentle slopes on the other hand, lead to decreased runoff, which favours infiltration.

INFILTRATION RATE

The rate at which water enters the soil is called the infiltration rate, and is usually measured in inches per hour. Infiltration capacity is the maximum rate at which infiltration can occur. 

MEASURING INFILTRATION

Infiltration rates can be measured using devices like infiltrometers, rainfall simulators, and infiltration tests. 

RUNOFF

If the rate of precipitation is faster than the rate of infiltration, runoff will occur unless there is a physical barrier. Also, when water is supplied to the soil at a rate that exceed infiltration capacity (saturation), such water result in runoff especially on slopy areas or pond up on flat surfaces. When runoff occur on bare land or poorly vegetated soils, erosion will occur. The runoff will carry along with it nutrients, applied agrochemicals and soils to deposited them elsewhere. Thus decreasing soil health and productivity.
Ponded water on the soil surface means the soil is oversaturated and pore spaces are overfilled with water. Therefore, poor aeration of soil occurs which leads to anaerobic condition within that soil. This therefore leads to poor root function and plant growth, reduced nutrient availability, reduced cycling by soil microorganisms, and soil strength decreases. Also, soil structure is destroyed, high rate of soil particle detachment occurs, and the soil becomes more erodible.

The ponded water are also exposed to increased evaporation, hence reduced water availability to plants.

HOW TO IMPROVE SOIL INFILTRATION.
Several conservation practices result to reduced infiltration. By proper consideration and application of these practices, infiltration will be improved. Some of the conservation practices that reduce infiltration include: burning, harvesting of crop residues, tillage methods and soil disturbance activities, prevention of soil organic matter decomposition and accumulation, equipment and Livestock trafficking, and reduced soil porosity.
To maintain and improve soil infiltration, conservation measures should be properly applied. such measures include: Proper managing of crop residues, increasing vegetative covers, increasing soil organic matter, practicing zero tillage or non disturbance of soil, protect soil from erosion, encourage development of good soil structures, and breaking of compacted areas in soil etc.

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Soils vary in many different ways.  They differ in texture, consistency, colour, infiltration rates, tilth, permeability, depth, organic matter content, and water holding capacity – to name a few. Soil moisture which is an important component of the soil is required by plant to survive while growing on the soil. This soil moisture are found within the micropores in the soil.
Not all soil moisture in a soil is available to plant. Some are lost through evaporation and transpiration, runoff, as well as drainage and infiltration .
Available water is retained in the soil after the excess has drained (field capacity to wilting point). This water is the most important for crop or forage production. Plants can use approximately 50 percent of it without exhibiting stress, but if less than 50 percent is available, drought stress can result. Unavailable water is soil moisture that is held so tightly by the soil that it cannot be extracted by the plant. Water remains in the soil even below plants’ wilting point .
Soil moisture is essential in making management decisions such as; types of crops to plant, plant populations, irrigation scheduling, and the amount of fertilizer to apply. All these depend on the amount of moisture that is available to the crop throughout the growing season.
Soils have ability to hold water in a process called soil water holding capacity.
Water Holding Capacity is the amount of water that a medium can hold. This is affected by the media composition, texture, plant roots, any rocks or similar and, in the case of pots, slabs or bags, the size and shape of the container.
Soil water holding capacity is used to optimize crop production and It is defined as the amount of water that a given soil can hold for crop use. 
Field capacity is the point where the soil water holding capacity has reached its maximum for the entire field.

The goal of soil water holding capacity for agricultural producers is to maintain the field moisture at or near capacity.

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL WATER HOLDING CAPACITY

1. Soil moisture holding capacity is important because it helps plants grow.

2. It reduces the risk of flooding and erosion, and makes soil more resilient to extreme weather.

3. Soil that can hold more water can compensate for dry years when there isn’t enough precipitation. 

4. Adequate soil moisture helps plants transpire efficiently, which cools the plant and transports nutrients. 

5. Soils with a higher water holding capacity can store more water during wet periods, which reduces the risk of flooding and erosion. 

6. Soils with a higher water holding capacity can resist extreme weather events like long, wet winters and hot, dry summers. 

7. Soils with a higher water holding capacity need less water from rainfall or irrigation, which reduces the cost of irrigation. 

8. It is used to determine how much water storage capacity the field has,

9. It is used to determine how much supplemental irrigation should be applied. 

10. The WHC also determines how much irrigation water can be applied at one time to match the infiltration rate and avoid applying more water .

11. Maintaining soil water holding capacity can mean increased profits to farms.

12. It gives useful information about crop selection.

13. It gives information about ground water contamination consideration
14. It is used to estimate run off

Before further discussion about water holding capacity of soils, certain concept of capillarity needs to be understood.

1. CAPILLARITY: Water molecules behave in two ways:
a. COHESION FORCE: cohesion forces makes water molecules attracted to one another. Cohesion causes water molecules to stick to one another and form water droplets. While
b. ADHESION FORCE: Adhension force is responsible for the attraction between water and solid surfaces. For example, a drop of water can stick to a glass surface as the result of adhesion. It is adhension force that cling water to soil particles.

2. SURFACE TENSION: Water also exhibits a property of surface tension. Water surfaces behave in an unusual way because of cohesion. Since water molecules are more attracted to other water molecules as opposed to air particles, water surfaces behave like expandable films. This phenomenon is what makes it possible for certain insects to walk along water surfaces.

3. CAPILLARY ACTION: Capillary action, also referred to as capillary motion or capillarity, is a combination of cohesion/adhesion and surface tension forces. Capillary action is usually demonstrated in the laboratory using measuring cylinders or tubes of different width/sizes placed in a water bath to test the upward movement of water through the cylinders or tubes  against the force of gravity. (Note that capillary action occurs when the adhesive intermolecular forces between a liquid, such as water, and the solid surface of the cylinder or tube are stronger than the cohesive intermolecular forces between water molecules.)
From the result of capillarity, a concave meniscus (or curved, U-shaped surface) forms where the liquid is in contact with a vertical surface of the cylinder or tube.

Capillary rise is the height to which the water rises within the cylinder or tube, and decreases as the width of the cylinder or tube increases. Thus, the narrower the tube, the greater the rise of water to a higher height. Meaning that the liquid rises to the greatest height in the narrowest tube whereas capillary rise is lowest in the widest tube. Also, this demonstration can also be related to what happens in the soil. Capillary action also occurs in soils. Smaller pores that exist in finely-textured soils have a greater capacity to hold and retain water than coarser soils. Water moves upwards through soil pores, or the spaces between soil particles.
The height to which the water rises is dependent upon pore size. As a result, the smaller the soil pores, the higher the capillary rise. Finely-textured soils typically have smaller pores than coarsely-textured soils. Therefore, finely-textured soils have a greater ability to hold and retain water in the soil in the inter-particle spaces which are called micropores. This exist in clayey or silty soils. In contrast, the larger pore spacing between larger particles, such as sand, are called macropores.

In addition to water retention, capillarity in soil also enables the upward and horizontal movement of water within the soil profile, as opposed to downward movement caused by gravity. This upward and horizontal movement occurs when lower soil layers have more moisture than the upper soil layers and is important because it may be absorbed by roots. As a result, finer-textured soils have greater water holding capacity than coarse textures soil
Therefore, it can be stated that capillarity is the primary force that enables the soil to retain water, as well as to regulate its movement.

FACTORS INFLUENCEING SOIL WATER-HOLDING CAPACITY

Water-holding capacity is controlled primarily by soil texture and organic matter. Soils with smaller particles (silt and clay) have a larger surface area than those with larger sand particles, and a large surface area allows a soil to hold more water. In other words, a soil with a high percentage of silt and clay particles, which describes fine soil, has a higher water-holding capacity.
SOIL TEXTURE: Soils are made up of three main components: sand, silt and clay.  The proportion of each component determines the soil texture.  Each soil texture has its own Water Holding Capacity (WHC). Water Holding Capacity in relation to soil texture is the ability of a certain soil texture to physically hold water against the force of gravity.  It does this by soil particles holding water molecules by the force of cohesion.  As an example, a sandier soil has much less water holding capacity than a silt loam soil.  Due to the size of the soil particles, the cohesive properties are much different between a sand particle and a clay or silt particle.

Clay particles have the ability to physically and chemically “hold” water molecules to the particle more tightly than sands or silts.  Sands “give up” the water between the pores much easier than silts or clays. 

SOIL ORGANIC MATTER
Soil organic matter (SOM) is another factor that can help increase water holding capacity. Soil organic matter has a natural magnetism to water that is, organic matter has affinity for water. If the farmer increases the percentage of soil organic matter on his farm, the soil water holding capacity will increase. SOM is decayed material that originated from a living organism. SOM can be increased by adding plant or animal material.

HOW TO INCREASE THE SOIL WATER HOLDING CAPACITY ON FARMS
Changing the soil texture of the field is not a viable opinion to emback upon by farmers. Soil texture can be changed naturally by erosion, but that usually changes soil texture in a negative way. The best option for a farmer is to increase the soil organic matter of the soil.
Some basic ways to increase SOM include:

1. Use cover crops
2. Change to conservation tillage practices, for example no-till or minimal tillage
3. Add manure
4. Add compost
5. Living crop residues on the farm after harvest

.WATER HOLDING CAPACITY OF VARIOUS SOIL TEXTURES
Sand                         = 0.8”/ft
Loamy Sand             = 1.2”/ft
Clay                          = 1.35”/ft
Silty Clay                  = 1.6”/ft
Fine Sandy Loam     = 1.9”/ft
Silt Loam                  = 2.4”/ft

In conclusion, the Maximum Water Holding Capacity, also known as the Field or Pot Capacity, is the maximum amount of water that specific pot/bag/slab/similar can hold without it draining out

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