The kiwi plant (Actinidia deliciosa), is a vigorous, woody vine native to China and grown for its edible, fuzzy-skinned fruit, known as kiwifruit or Chinese gooseberry. It belongs to the family Actinidiaceae.
It originate from the mainland China and Taiwan, but also grown commercially in New Zealand and California. The plant produces a fruit, which is a true berry with a fuzzy, brownish-green skin, translucent green flesh, and with numerous edible purple-black seeds.
The Kiwi vines are dioecious, meaning that male and female flowers are borne on separate individuals. They have a
growth habit of producing a climbing vine, making it needs plenty of space and sturdy supports.

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION
Kiwi plants can reach a height of 9 m (30 ft) and have an economic lifespan of 3 years, after which time fruit production begins to decline.
THE VINES: Kiwi Vines are very aggressive growers. They do not grow quickly. Vines will grow several inches a day at each growing tip. It takes very aggressive pruning to control their size.
The vines are dioecious, meaning that male and female flowers are borne on separate individuals. Generally, one male plant can facilitate the pollination of three to eight female plants.
THE FRUIT: The fruit is ellipsoidal , a true berry and has furry brownish green skin. The firm translucent green flesh has numerous edible purple-black seeds embedded around a white centre.
The fruit has a slightly acid taste and can be eaten raw or cooked. The juice is sometimes used as a meat tenderizer. Raw kiwis are high in vitamins C and K.

THE LEAVES: The deciduous leaves are borne alternately on long petioles (leaf stems), and young leaves are covered with reddish hairs. While mature leaves are smooth and dark green on the upper surface and white and downy on lower surface.

FLOWERS: They produce Fragrant, creamy-white flowers or white-yellow flowers singly or in clusters of 3 at the leaf axils (area between leaf and stem).

THE ROOTS: Kiwi roots are similar to hop roots in that they get very fat and long very quickly. Therefore, there is need to prune them at least monthly after flowering.
BENEFITS OF KIWI

1. Kiwi fruit offers numerous health benefits, including being a great source of vitamin C, fiber, and antioxidants, which can support heart health, digestion, and immunity.

2. NUTRITIONAL POWERHOUSE THAT SUPPORT THE IMMUNE SYSTEM:
Kiwi is an excellent source of vitamin C, a powerful antioxidant that supports the immune system and helps protect against cell damage.

3. ANTIOXIDANT POWER:
Kiwis contain various antioxidants, including flavonoids and carotenoids, which help combat oxidative stress and inflammation in the body.

4. OTHER NUTRIENTS:
Kiwi also provides potassium, vitamin E, vitamin K, and folate, further contributing to overall health.

5. HEART HEALTH:
The fiber, potassium, and antioxidants in kiwis may contribute to a healthy heart by helping to lower blood pressure and cholesterol levels. This makes kiwi fruit important because cardiovascular health is linked to sexual function.

6. DIGESTIVE HEALTH:
The fiber content in kiwis can promote regular bowel movements and alleviate constipation.

7. IMMUNE SUPPORT:
Vitamin C and other nutrients in kiwis can help boost the immune system and protect against infections, making it a contributor to overall health and potentially prevent sexual dysfunction.

8. EYE HEALTH:
Kiwis contain antioxidants that may help protect against age-related eye diseases, such as macular degeneration.

9. SKIN HEALTH:
Vitamin C and antioxidants in kiwis can contribute to healthy skin by protecting against damage from free radicals and promoting collagen production.

10. SLEEP QUALITY:
Some studies suggest that kiwis may improve sleep quality, potentially due to their serotonin content.

11. ASTHMA SYMPTOMS:
The high vitamin C and antioxidant content in kiwi can help reduce asthma symptoms, such as wheezing and shortness of breath.

12. Kiwi, rich in vitamin C and antioxidants, may support sexual health by promoting blood vessel health, potentially reducing erectile dysfunction risk, and enhancing sperm health.

13. IMPROVED SPERM HEALTH:
Kiwi’s antioxidants, including vitamin C and vitamin E, can help reduce oxidative stress, protect sperm DNA, and potentially improve sperm motility.

14. BLOOD VESSEL HEALTH:
Vitamin C, abundant in kiwi, supports healthy blood vessels, which is important for maintaining blood flow and potentially reducing the risk of erectile dysfunction.

15. ANTIOXIDANT POWER:
Kiwi’s antioxidants can help combat free radicals, which can damage cells and contribute to various health problems, including those affecting sexual function.

16. IMPROVE SLEEP: Eating kiwis before bed might help improve sleep quality, which in turn can positively impact sexual function.

17. GUT HEALTH: Kiwi’s fiber content can support gut health, which is important for overall well-being.

18. FIBER BOOST:
Kiwis are a good source of both soluble and insoluble fiber, which aids in digestion, promotes healthy gut bacteria, and can help regulate blood sugar levels.

19. They are delicious, easy to eat, and incredibly healthy.

20. Green slices with black seeds of kiwi fruit have long been used to spruce desserts and fruit bowls. The unique appearance and high nutritional value of kiwi set it apart from other fruits, and they add a brilliant pop of colour to any dish. It also has refreshing flavour, making it a popular fruit option.

21. KIWI’S NUTRITIONAL VALUE
This is the nutrient breakdown for a 3.5 ounce (100gm) portion of the flesh of a raw, green kiwi:

Carbs: 14 gms
Calories: 64
Fat: 0.44 gms
Fiber: 3 gms
Protein: 1 gm
Vitamin C: 83 percent of the Daily Value (DV)
Vitamin K: 34 percent of the DV
Vitamin E: 9 percent of the DV
Copper: 15 percent of the DV
Folate: 7 percent of the DV
Magnesium: 4 percent of the DV
Potassium: 4 percent of the DV

22. In Mal human, Kiwi benefits the sexuality of male human being in many ways, some of which are as follows.
a. KIWI FRUIT FOR MALE FERTILITY:
It is rich in vitamin E and C compared to other fruits that people usually eat. One cup has about 20% of recommended daily amount of Vitamin E and more than 2000% of the recommended daily amount of vitamin C.
These two vitamins improve sperm motility and count when taken independently, but their benefits are even more remarkable when taken together.
b. Both vitamins E and C in kiwi are antioxidants in food, but they do not work the same way. They each target and reduce harmful free radicals, making them work together to reduce inflammation in different and unique ways.
c. A study shows that vitamins C and E, when taken together, can help improve semen parameters.

23. ZINC FOR MALE;
Zinc is present in abundance in kiwi fruit. Zinc has a significant impact on a man’s ability to conceive, and zinc’s antioxidant qualities prevent the cells from the harmful effect of free radicals. A study found that males with greater zinc levels had more sperm and better sperm quality. If a male human has more sperm and better quality, he may be more likely to conceive children.

24. INCREASE LIBIDO:
One of the surprising kiwi benefits for males is to improve their sex drive. Testosterone levels are clinically shown to rise when men take vitamin C, resulting in increased sexual desire. Testosterone has long been famous for being the primary catalyst for male sexual desire.
Vitamin C, which is a potent antioxidant, increases nitric oxide synthesis (NO). Increasing a man’s sex drive is possible since nitric oxide plays a significant part in his sexual ability.

25. FIGHT THE SIDE EFFECTS OF TADALAFIL
Research on rats indicated that kiwi fruit was advantageous and might counteract the adverse effects of tadalafil, a common medication for E.D, due to the Vitamin C levels in kiwis, which is higher than in oranges.
Despite all kiwi benefits for males, it is best to consult a Specialist rather than using it on its own if concerned about ones sexual health.

26. Besides kiwi benefits for males, it is also great for females, especially for boosting fertility. It has a low G.I. and is low in fat and abundant in folic acid. Women who want to start a family should adopt a healthy lifestyle by eating low G.I. carbs, balanced proteins, and low-fat foods.

27. Kiwi is also beneficial too at night. Eating 1–2 medium kiwis before going to bed will make one to fall asleep faster and stay asleep longer. It may be better to eat a kiwi before going to bed because it has a lot of serotonin and antioxidants, which may help induce sleep better.

28. Kiwi is also beneficial for Skin. The antioxidant, moisturizing, rejuvenating, and skin-soothing properties are excellent, making it beneficial for males and females. It is also present in cosmetic products, lotions, and creams.

29. Kiwi Fruit is beneficial for Weight Loss. It is low in calories and has a lot of fiber, protein, digestive enzymes, and vitamin C, which can help lose weight. A diet high in fiber from fruits and vegetables has been shown to help people lose weight, feel fuller, and have a healthy gut.

30. Kiwi seeds also has its Benefits.
a. In kiwifruit, there are tiny black seeds that can be eaten. b. The seeds have a lot of essential nutrients, even if they are only there in small amounts.
c. Kiwi seeds have a considerable amount of omega-3 fats, and Omega-3 fats are suitable for the brain and heart.

31. It is adviceable to take 2 to 3 Kiwis every day because they help thin the blood. A healthy blood flow also improves sex life, which means males will have stronger erections and more powerful orgasms.

32. Eating kiwi every day helps
Keep blood pressure in check and boost Vitamin C intake.

33. kiwi can help avoid strokes and heart disease.

34. Kiwis are great for boosting energy and are especially good before and after a workout. Refueling the body with them after work out is excellent.

35. Kiwis are primarily consumed as a fresh fruit.
Important Notice:
While kiwi offers potential benefits, it’s important to remember that a balanced and healthy lifestyle is crucial for overall sexual health.

DISADVANTAGES OF KIWI FRUIT

1. The most common disadvantages of kiwi fruit are different kinds of allergy reactions.
People who are allergic to kiwi can have troubles like swallowing, vomiting, and hives when they eat the fruit.

2. It result in some illnesses such as ; Dermatitis,
Pancreatitis, Latex Allergy,
Oral Allergy Syndrome (OAS), etc.

3. Raw kiwifruit is rich in a protein-dissolving enzyme called actinidain. This makes the kiwi unsuitable for use in dishes that contain milk products or gelatin. If these dishes are not served immediately, the enzyme starts to digest the proteins in the dishes, destroying the texture. In gelatin-based dishes, the enzyme can prevent the liquid from solidifying.

TYPES AND VARIETIES
There are two main types of Kiwifruit plants grown in home gardens: Kiwifruit and Kiwiberry. Both types of kiwi are frost-susceptible, so this plant is best grown in areas with a frost-free growing season of at least 200 days.

KIWIBERRY (Acinidia arguta) Kiwiberry produces a smooth, green, grape-sized fruit. They are grown often for their attractive, pink-variegated foliage and fragrant flowers. Native to northern China, Japan, and Korea, this exported plant is sometimes called “hardy kiwi” or “Northern kiwi.” It is also known by other names such as baby kiwi, dessert kiwi, grape kiwi, and cocktail kiwi.
As the name suggests, the hardy kiwi (Actinidia Arguta) does best in colder areas (USDA zones 4 to 7) and can even survive subzero temperatures.
The plant comes in several varieties. The varieties include;
Hayward’ is the main female variety of A. deliciosa grown commercially. It produces the fuzzy brown fruit with green interiors that can be found in grocery stores.
Male varieties include ‘Chico’, ‘Matua’, and ‘Tamori’.
A. arguta ‘Ananasnaya’ (also called ‘Anna’) has jade-coloured skin, bright green flesh, black seeds and tastes like pineapple.
A. arguta ‘Issai’ is self-fertile (does not require a male pollinator) and produces small, juicy fruit. Pollinators love the fragrant white flowers in early summer.
A. arguta ‘Geneva’ ripens earlier than either ‘Anna’ or ‘Issai’ and has sweet, honey-flavoured fruit.
A. arguta ‘Ken’s Red’ has fruit with reddish-purple skins. The flesh inside is dark green with deep-red streaks.
A. kolomikta ‘Red Beauty’ fruit ripens earlier than most hardy kiwi species, but A. kolomikta can be more temperamental in general. Its fruit is skinny and sweet. Foliage turns a brilliant red in the fall.
Note: If you are considering growing kiwifruit in the garden, know that both a male and a female plant are required to produce fruit. The male plant produces flowers, while the female plant produces both flowers and fruit. (However, one reportedly self-fertile variety of hardy kiwi is called ‘Issai’ it requires only a space for one plant)

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT
Kiwi plants are native to warm, forest regions of China and require a long growing season with 8 to 9 month with no frost.
a. TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENTS: The optimal temperature during the growing season is between 14 and 24°C (57.2–75.2°F). The plant can tolerate cold but is damaged by temperatures below -8°C (17.6°F). Some varieties such as the Hayward cultivar will tolerate temperatures down to -10°C (14°F). Kiwi should be planted in full sunlight to ensure optimal productivity.
SOIL REQUIREMENT: kiwifruit vines will grow best when planted in deep, well-draining, sandy loams soil because they are extremely sensitive to standing water. Apart from which they are also prone to root rot if kept too wet.
The optimum pH for the soil should be between 5.5 and 6.0.

PLANTING
Kiwi Vines can be planted in the spring after the threat of frost has passed. It will start bearing fruit between 3 to 5 years after planting.
To get a good crop from kiwi, a male plant and female plants are required. The females produce the fruit. The best ratio is at least one male plant for every six female plants.
Plant the vines 10 to 15 feet apart.
IDENTIFICATION OF MALE AND FEMALE KIWI VINES
Kiwi plants are dioecious, which means that the plants only have female or male parts. So in order to produce fruit both must be present.
Both male and female vine can only be identified when the male or female vine is at bloom time. Female kiwis have multi-branched stigmas in the center of the flowers with a row of white ovules at the base of the flower, which will develop into a seed when fertilized. The male vines have lots of stamens with anthers that are covered in pollen.
It is recommended that one male plant be present for every six females.

PLANTING SITE
Kiwi vines need a sunny spot for the best growth and fruit production.
The areas should be protected to avoid wind damage. The vines should be planted at the north side of the yard in colder regions to minimize the risk of freeze-thaw damage in early spring, when plants are especially susceptible.

PROPAGATION OF KIWI VINES
Kiwis can be propagated both sexually and asexually. Various varietal methods are involved, including growing from seed or from hard or softwood cuttings or root cuttings. The easiest method of propagation is the use of softwood cuttings.

Kiwi can be propagated from seeds by planting in nursery after which they are transplanted.
The seeds should be planted 1/8 inch deep in moist sterile potting mix or trays and covered with plastic wrap.
The container or trays should be placed in a warm, bright spot and the soil moistened.
When the seedlings start emerging, uncover the container.
When the plants have four true leaves, the seedlings should be transplanted into individual plastic nursery bags.
When the plants are several inches tall, they should then be transplanted outdoor.
ASEXUAL PROPAGATION
Apart from sexual propagation, kiwi can also be propagated asexually. In asexual propagation,
Kiwis can be propagated from softwood cuttings (cuttings taken from new growth during the summer). The cuttings should be taken during the summer months when the tree is actively growing. Each cutting should be taken from the current season’s growth and should possess 2-3 nodes (leaves). The leaves must be fully expanded in order for the cutting to be successful. Cuttings should not be taken from immature growth such as at the end of shoots. Once the cuttings have been obtained, they should be stripped of all but the top-most leaf. Rooting hormone can be used to aid the cuttings in developing new roots. Those containing indole-3-butyric acid have been shown to be most effective in kiwi propagation. After treatment with rooting hormone, the kiwi cuttings should be planted in beds or small pots, preferably in a glasshouse, and kept moist. When the cuttings have began to develop new shoots, they should be transferred into 1 gallon pots or planting bags containing a high quality potting soil and watered daily. The potted plants should be fed with a slow release fertilizer at least twice over the growing season
Apart from planting the cuttings in a soil medium, they can also be raised using soil less method. The process is as follows;
Cut a kiwi stem into six-inch lengths and cut off any growing tip. The cuttings should then be put into a glass with an inch of water.
In about three weeks, the cuttings will have tiny roots at the ends of the cuttings.
Plant the cuttings in pots or plant outdoors.

WATER OR IRRIGATION: kiwifruits require a plentiful supply of water during production
TRANSPLANTING: If the kiwi vines are to be grown on a trellis or pergola, this should be constructed prior to planting. Kiwi should be planted by digging a planting hole which is at least three times the width of the current pot that the plant is in. The vines should be wounded around the legs of the trellis to climb and produce fruits. SPACING: Individual plants should be spaced at 5 m (16.4 ft) apart when using a T-trellis system but can be planted closer together when vines are managed by pruning. Approximately 6 m (19.6 ft) should be left between rows. This distance is again dependent on the training system being utilized. Almost all kiwi species are dioecious and require the presence of both a male and female tree in order to set fruit. The recommended planting ratio is 1 male to every 8 females but a higher density of male trees will increase productivity.
TRAILLIS: Kiwi plant produces vines that require the support of a trellis to support the weight of the growing fruit. The vines are also slow growers and need sturdy supports.
Erect a tall, heavy-duty trellis system that can support the vines that can grow 15 feet wide and 20 feet long, and produce up to 100 pounds of fruit.

PRUNNING
Start training the flexible vines up a support during the first year of planting.
Prune the lateral growth (if not flowering) 2 to 3 times during the growing season.
Kiwi plants flower and fruit on old wood. Regularly remove water sprouts (vigorous shoots originating from older wood) and shoots from the trunk.
Prune female vines during the winter months, when the plant is dormant. Prune male vines in early summer after bloom.
In cold areas, the vines of hardy kiwi may die back to the ground each year. Remove the dead stems and mulch with leaves or straw.

ROOT TRIMMING
When planting, there may be need to trim the roots if too long. The vines must be planted deep enough to cover the roots well with soil.

FERTILIZER REQUIREMENT: Kiwis have a high nutrient demand, particularly for nitrogen and potassium. after the first year of planting, plants should be fertilized in the Spring and as required throughout the growing season with the type and amount of fertilizer depending on the particular soil type and the age of the vines.
Note: Do not fertilize in the first year after planting. After the first year after planting, fertilize with a well-balanced fertilizer or soybean meal in the spring.

COMMON PESTS AND DISEASES OF KIWI

DISEASES
Some of the diseases that affect kiwi plant include; Fungal, Bacterial, Oomycete, root rot, etc

FUNGAL
Armillaria root rot is caused by the fungi Armillaria mellea.
Root rot can occur if plants become waterlogged.
Phytophthora crown rot and
Wit can affect the production of kiwi plant.
SYMPTOMS
Vines may completely collapse, white mycelial mats may be present under bark close to the soil line. Cortical tissue has a dark discoloration and white mycelial strands are present, root-like rhizomorphs extend from roots into soil
The disease emergence is favoured by continually damp soil, or saturated soils.
CONTROL
a. Ensure that land to be used for new kiwi plantings is completely cleared of roots which are greater than 1 inch in diameter
b. Ensure kiwi vines are adequately irrigated but not overwatered

2. BACTERIAL
A. Bacterial blight. The disease is caused by the bacteria Pseudomonas spp.
SYMPTOMS
Brown, sunken lesions on petals covering flower buds, yellow-orange discoloration of petals. Small yellow spots may appear on leaves after periods of rain.
The bacteria enter the plants through wounds
CONTROL
a. Control of the disease relies on the avoidance of injuries to the plant which allow bacteria to enter.
b. There are currently no recommended chemical control strategies for the disease
B. Bleeding canker It is caused by a bacteria called Pseudomonas syringae
SYMPTOMS
Wilting plants, blighting of canes, red, rust coloured cankers on branches which may exude red coloured discharge
The disease has a wide host range.
CONTROL
a. Infected areas should be pruned by cutting 1 foot below the edge of the canker.
b. The disease severity can be reduced by protecting plants from freeze injuries over winter
C. CROWN GALL
This disease is caused by a bacteria called Agrobacterium tumefaciens
SYMPTOMS
Reduced plant vigor, leaves are smaller in size, poor growth, open canopy, reduced yield and galls may be too small to see.
The bacteria enter the plant through wounds.
CONTROL
a. Control of the disease relies on the avoidance of injury to kiwi vines.
b. Existing galls can be surgically removed

3. OOMYCETE
A. Phytophthora root and crown rot
These two diseases are caused by Phytophthora spp.
SYMPTOMS
Reduced shoot growth, small, chlorotic leaves are formed. Vines may collapse suddenly or show a gradual decline in productivity over several seasons, red-brown discoloration of roots and root crowns which is visible when root is cut in two
Disease emergence is favoured by poorly drained soils and flood irrigation
CONTROL
a. Control of the disease is reliant on good water management and application of appropriate fungicides.
b. Kiwi should be planted in well-draining soils where water does not pool after rain or irrigation.
c. Plants should be allowed to dry out between irrigations

HARVESTING
The fruit typically reaches maturity in September/October, which can make it susceptible to early fall frosts in some areas.
Harvest the fruit when they are soft to the touch and ready to be eaten.
Alternatively, if early fall frosts are a concern, harvest kiwi fruits when they are still firm but have black seeds. This fruit can be stored in the refrigerator for up to six weeks. Remove it from the refrigerator and allow it to soften for a couple of days before eating.

STORAGE OF KIWI FRUIT
Store firm kiwi in the refrigerator or a cooler for up to six weeks.
Freeze firm whole hardy kiwis on a cookie sheet and then put them into plastic freezer bags.

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Livestock manure provides a valuable source of nutrients, organic matter and carbon to pastures and cropland. As a low input by-product, manure offers a long-term source of nutrients that can influence soil properties, increase soil carbon and nitrogen, and alter soil phosphorus and potassium concentration along with other nutrients.
Manures, like farmyard and green manures, differ in origin and impact on soil, with farmyard manure being animal waste and green manure being crops grown and incorporated into the soil. Both types of manure enrich the soil with organic matter and nutrients.
Farmyard Manure (FYM) is the decomposed mixture of animal dung, urine, and bedding materials, like straw. It’s origin and primary source include livestock like cows, horses, goat, sheep, poultry, guano, etc.). This manure contain a good balance of nutrients, including nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and micronutrients etc. It improves soil structure, water-holding capacity, and microbial activity. It is also one of the ingredients in compost manure.
Animal farm produces large amounts of cattle manure, sheep manure and poultry droppings etc and manure wash-water during the farming operations. All manures produced by these animals depend on the type of food and feed they fed upon.
Cattle, sheep and goats which ruminate on grasses and plant materials produce manure that contains nutrients uptake by the plants they fed upon. Non ruminants like poultry will produce droppings that contain nutrient from the feed they fed upon.
Farm yard manure in liquid form, is known as slurry. It is produced by more intensive livestock rearing systems where concrete or slats are used instead of straw bedding.
IMPACT OF MANURE ON THE ENVIRONMENT
Manure is not a uniform product, it is heterogenous and variable, with many components such as straw, bedding and by-products of the animal’s diet.
Applying manure or nutrients beyond plant requirements wastes time and money. It can also impact the environment if over applied nutrients leach into water bodies. Before usage, proper treatment or curing is required. Treatment of stored manure can include; stockpiling, composting, drying, and less commonly, separation and filtering.
Timing of application is important to reduce odours and potential runoff.
Application rates should be chosen based on nutrient requirements of the soil and crop to be grown, nutrient composition of manure, and the application method.
Using manure to supply N at recommended levels for crops will need applying more P than required, which will increase soil P levels.

COW MANURE ()
Cattle manure, also known as cow dung, cow pats, cow pies or cow poop, is the waste product of bovine animals (Such as domestic cattle (“cows”), bison (“buffalo”), yak, and water buffalo), which are undigested residue of plant matter that passed through the animal’s gut. Its colour ranges from greenish to blackish, often darkening soon after exposure to air. It is rich in nutrients and often used as a natural fertilizer and soil amendment.
Atimes, it is often refered to as dilute fertilizer due to its high content of water and organic materials and a rich source of carbon and nitrogen. It also contain other valuable nutrients including; phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulphur (S), magnesium (Mg), and calcium (Ca), as well as certain micronutrients. It contains several easily degradable as well as several difficult to hydrolyze substrates such as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin due to the plant materials they feed upon.
Cattle manure also contain different substrates which help to proliferate complex microbial communities. It is used as an inoculum of electroactive bacteria for MFCs. MFCs ( Microbial Fuel Cells), a type of bioelectrochemical fuel cell system that generates electricity using microorganisms to convert chemical energy from organic matter into electrical energy, often used for wastewater treatment. MFC fed with particulate cattle manure and manure wash-water can generate power density of 67 to 215 mW/m2 in batch mode. Power yield of 15.1 W/m3 was reported when cattle manure was used as suspended solid substrate in MFC. Using cassette-electrode MFC configuration, a maximum of 16.3 W/m3 (765 mW/m2) was reported with suspended cattle manure, corresponding to 41.9% of the total COD removal in first 10 days of MFC operation. MFC enhances organic carbon degradation even when there is insufficient water supply. When cow manure was used with 80% moisture as organic carbon source in a compost MFC, it produced a power density of 349 ± 39 mW/m2 with 0.1 mg/cm2 Pt catalyst at the cathode. Electricity production from cattle manure was only around ~ 10 kJ/kg wet manure which translates to 50 kJ/kg dry manure. Integrating MFCs in manure and manure wash water treatments was beneficial in terms of effective degradation of substrate but the energy generations were limited in comparison to other bioenergy technologies
Manure with straw and bedding is an excellent source of organic matter when added to the land. The manure will degrade faster while the straw will degrade slower making manure a fertilizer with long term effect.
Cattle waste, or manure, often naturally includes straw and other bedding materials, creating a mixture that is rich in nutrients and suitable for composting to produce high-quality fertilizer. 

The manure is a nutrient-rich organic waste which is not just animal feces; it also contains tracks of hay, straw, bedding, grains, and other organic matter used to feed the animals and the straw is a carbon-rich organic material, which can create a valuable compost material that enriches soil fertility and improves soil health.
Straw and manure have different carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratios, and the right balance is important for efficient composting. The straw is typically high in carbon (C), while manure is higher in nitrogen (N).
Manure (nitrogen-rich) can be mixed with straw (carbon-rich) to achieve a balanced C:N ratio, which is essential for microbial activity during composting.
A typical straw C/N ratio is 70-150. Cattle manure C/N ratio is 15-30. Meaning cattle manure is richer in nitrogen.
USES OF COW DUNG

1. DRYING COW DUNG FOR FUEL:
In many parts of the old world, and in the past in mountain regions of Europe, caked and dried cow dung is used as fuel. In India, it is dried into cake like shapes called upla or kanda, and used as replacement for firewood for cooking in chulah (traditional kitchen stove).

2. PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS: Cattle dung may also be collected and used to produce biogas to generate electricity and heat. The gas is rich in methane and is used in rural areas of India and Pakistan and elsewhere to provide a renewable and stable (but unsustainable) source of electricity.

3. FERTILIZER:
Cow dung, which is usually a dark brown colour, is often used as manure (agricultural fertilizer). If not recycled into the soil by species such as earthworms and dung beetles, cow dung can dry out and remain on the pasture, creating an area of grazing land which is unpalatable to livestock.

4. Cow dung is nowadays used for making flower and plant pots. It is plastic free, biodegradable and eco-friendly. Unlike plastic grow bags which harm nature, cow dung pots dissolves naturally and becomes excellent manure for the plant. From 20 July 2020, State Government of Chhattisgarh India started buying cow dung under the Godhan Nyay Yojana scheme. Cow dung procured under this scheme were utilised for the production of vermicompost fertilizer.

5. RELIGIOUS USES
Cow dung is used in Hindu yajna ritual as an important ingredient. Cow dung is also used in the making of pancha-gavya, for use in Hindu rituals. Several Hindu texts – including Yājñavalkya Smṛti and Manusmṛti – state that the pancha-gavya purifies many sins. The Mahabharata narrates a story about how Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity, came to reside in cow dung. In the legend, Lakshmi asks cows to let her live in their bodies because they are pure and sinless. The cows refuse, describing her as unstable and fickle. Lakshmi begs them to accept her request, saying that others would ridicule her for being rejected by the cows, and agreeing to live in the most despised part of their body. The cows then allow her to live in their dung and urine.

6. FLOOR AND WALL COATING:
In several cultures, cow dung is traditionally used to coat floors and walls. In parts of Africa, floors of rural huts are smeared with cow dung: this is believed to improve interior hygiene and repel insects. This practice has various names, such as “ukusinda” in Xhosa, and “gwaya” in Ruruuli-Lunyala.
Similarly, in India, floors are traditionally smeared with cow dung to clean and smoothen them. Purananuru generally dated 150 BCE[11] mentions women of Tamil Nadu smear cow dung on the floors at the 13th day after her husband’s death to purify the house. Italian traveler Pietro Della Valle, who visited India in 1624, observed that the locals – including Christians – smeared floor with cow dung to purify it and repel insects. Tryambaka’s Strī-dharma-paddhati (18th century), which narrates a modified version of the Mahabharata legend about how the goddess Lakshmi came to reside in cow dung, instructs women to make their homes pure and prosperous by coating them with cow-dung. Many among modern generations have challenged this practice as unclean.

7. In 2021, the Government of India’s Khadi and Village Industries Commission launched the Khadi Prakritik paint, which has cow dung as its main ingredient, promoting it as an eco-friendly paint with anti-fungal and anti-bacterial properties.

Other uses

8. In central Africa, Maasai villages have burned cow dung inside to repel mosquitos. In cold places, cow dung is used to line the walls of rustic houses as a cheap thermal insulator. Villagers in India spray fresh cow dung mixed with water in front of the houses to repel insects.[16]

9. In Rwanda, it is used in an art form called imigongo.

10. Cow dung is also an optional ingredient in the manufacture of adobe mud brick housing depending on the availability of materials at hand.

11. COW CHIP THROWNING
A deposit of cow dung is referred to in American English as a “cow pie” or less commonly “cow chip” (usually when dried) and in British English as a “cowpat”. When dry, it is used in the practice of “cow chip throwing” popularized in Beaver, Oklahoma in 1970. On April 21, 2001 Robert Deevers of Elgin, Oklahoma, set the record for cow chip throwing with a distance of 185 feet 5 inches (56.52 m).

12. Cow dung provides food for a wide range of animal and fungus species, which break it down and recycle it into the food chain and into the soil.

DECOMPOSITION AND AGEING MANURE
Decomposition: Fresh manure needs to decompose or age to break down organic matter and eliminate harmful substances before being used as fertilizer.
Pathogens: Manure can contain pathogens and bacteria, requiring proper handling and management.
Soil Improvement: Applying manure to cropland improves soil organic matter and tilth, making it suitable for growing crops.
ADVANTAGES:

1. IMPROVES SOIL STRUCTURE:
Enhances soil properties such as aeration and water retention, especially beneficial for sandy soils lacking organic matter.

2. SLOW NUTRIENT RELEASE:
Decomposes slowly, providing a steady supply of nutrients to plants over time, reducing the need for frequent fertilization.

3. SUITABLE FOR ORGANIC FARMING:
Low salt and chemical content make it ideal for organic agriculture.

4. MILDER ODOUR:
Compared to poultry manure, it has a less pungent and more tolerable smell.

DISADVANTAGES:

1. LOWER NUTRIENT CONTENT:
Contains relatively low levels of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), making it less effective for immediate fertilization.

2. HIGH MOISTURE CONTENT:
Moisture levels can reach up to 85%, increasing weight and delaying decomposition.

3. SLOW DECOMPOSITION:
May not suit crops requiring quick nutrient availability.

SHEEP MANURE ()
Sheep manure, often referred to as “cold manure” due to its lower nitrogen content compared to other animal manures, is a natural, slow-release fertilizer that is safe for both vegetables and flower gardens. As a “cool” manure, meaning it’s lower in nitrogen and less prone to burning plants than “hot” manures like chicken manure, fresh or raw sheep manure can still burn plants if applied directly to the soil or in excessive amounts. Atimes, the manure usually consists of mixture of urine and feces of the sheep, along with any bedding, runoff, spilled feed, or other materials mixed with it. It is rich in phosphorus and potassium, beneficial for plant growth and soil improvement, and can be used as a mulch or compost.
The amount of nitrogen in the sheep manure is typically around 0.7% to 0.8%.
Phosphorus (P) ranges from 0.45% to 0.6% and
Potassium (K) ranges between 0.3% and 0.6%. The amount of organic matter content is typically high, ranging from 24% to 27%. Besides the major nutrients, other nutrients in sheep manure include micronutrients like boron, calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, sulfur, and zinc, which are essential for plant growth. OTHER BENEFITS INCLUDE:
a. IMPROVES SOIL STRUCTURE: It helps to improve soil structure, making it easier for roots to penetrate and absorb water and nutrients.
b. ENHANCES WATER RETENTION: Sheep manure can improve water retention in the soil, which is crucial for plant health, especially during dry periods.
c. ORGANIC MATTER: It is a good source of organic matter, which is essential for healthy soil and plant growth.
d. Uses in Gardening:
i. FERTILIZER: It can be used as a natural, slow-release fertilizer for a variety of plants, including vegetables, fruits, flowers, and shrubs.
ii. MULCH: Sheep manure can also be used as a mulch to help retain moisture, suppress weeds, and improve soil temperature.
e. COMPOST: It can be composted to create a nutrient-rich soil amendment.
Benefits of Composted Sheep Manure:
REDUCED ODOUR: Composted sheep manure has a lower odor compared to fresh manure.
SAFE FOR PLANTS: It is safe to use on most garden plants, including vegetables.
PROMOTES HEALTHY ROOT SYSTEMS: It helps to promote strong root systems, which are essential for plant health and productivity.
APPLICATION:
DIRECT APPLICATION: Sheep manure can be applied directly to the soil, either by tilling it in or spreading it on the surface.
SIDE DRESSING: It can also be used as a SIDE dressing, applying it along the rows of plants.
TEA: Sheep manure can be used to make a tea for watering plants or foliar feeding.

COMPARING SHEEP MANURE NUTRIENT CONTENT WITH OTHER MANURE SOURCE
While sheep manure is a good source of organic matter and beneficial microorganisms, Its nutrient content is typically lower in concentration compared to poultry manure and other sources.
Cow manure is also considered as “cold” manure, similar to sheep manure, and is better suited for root vegetables.
Poultry manure is known for its high nitrogen content and is favoured for rapid microbial activity.
Horse manure is also a good source of nutrients and organic matter, but it can be “hot” and needs to be composted before use.
TYPES:
Sheep manure can be used raw, aged, or composted.
BENEFITS:
SOIL IMPROVEMENT: Sheep manure is a great soil improver and conditioner.
NUTRIENT SOURCE: It provides nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, as well as micronutrients.
SLOW-RELEASE: It acts as a slow-release fertilizer, gradually providing nutrients to plants.
WATER RETENTION: It helps improve soil structure and water retention.
USES:
GARDENS: Sheep manure is suitable for both vegetable and flower gardens.
LANDSCAPING: It can be used to improve soil in landscaping projects.
COMPOSTING: It’s a valuable component of compost piles, enriching the soil with organic matter and nutrients.
COMPOSTING:
It’s generally recommended to compost sheep manure before using it in gardens, as this helps to break down the manure and reduce the risk of burning plants.

APPLICATION:
When using sheep manure, apply it sparingly and mix it well into the soil.
STORAGE:
Store sheep manure in a dry place to prevent it from becoming moldy or attracting pests.
SAFETY:
Avoid using raw manure from animals that may be carrying diseases, and always wash your hands thoroughly after handling manure.
ADVANTAGES:

NUTRIENT BALANCE:
Contains moderate levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, making it suitable for most crops.

FASTER DECOMPOSITION:
Breaks down more quickly than cow manure, supplying nutrients at a faster rate.

IMPROVES SOIL:
Increases organic matter without significantly affecting soil acidity.

MILDER ODOUR:
Less intense than poultry manure, making it suitable for fields near residential areas.

DISADVANTAGES:

LIMITED QUANTITY:
Sheep produce less manure than cows or poultry, making it harder to obtain in large amounts.

WEED SEEDS:
If not well-processed, it may contain weed seeds that can germinate in the soil.

Usage:
Ideal for seasonal crops such as vegetables and grains, offering balanced nutrient release.

HORSE MANURE:
Horse manure is also a good source of nutrients and organic matter, but it can be “hot” and needs to be composted before use.
It is a good source of essential macro- and micronutrients for plant growth and a popular additive to many home gardens. It is also highly valued by farmers because composting of horse manure makes the compost pile become super charged and also increases soil fertility, regeneration, and high quality yields. It makes a suitable and inexpensive fertilizer for plants. Horse manure can give new plants a jump start while providing essential nutrients for continual growth. Composting of horse manure does not require any special tools or structures. In fact, it can easily be composted by mixing with a shovel or pitchfork. It averts the negative effects of salinity and improves the capacity of soil water retention. This manure is recommended for crops like lettuce, tomato, and mint because it increases the crop yield with a lasting presence in the soil.
The exact nutrient composition varies based on the horse’s diet and exercise level. The manure can also be mixed with bedding, especially in the case with stall waste. Bedding material used in the sable varies and may be straw, elephant grass (miscanthus), wood shavings, pulp or pellets. If sourcing manure direct from a local supplier, find out the type of bedding material used, as this affects how long the manure should be left to rot down before using.
Manure and compost can be tested in a laboratory for nutrient content, and this is a good idea when using it as a source of nutrients for a crop. It is important to note that overfeeding nitrogen and phosphorus increases the amount of these nutrients in manure, so care should be taken to balance the horse’s diet to its nutritional needs.
Horse manure can also be an excellent soil amendment for pasture. It makes an extremely good soil improver for the garden. It is perfect for digging in or spreading as a mulch. Fresh manure must not be used directly on the garden as it can actually remove nutrients from the soil and scorch plants, but it can be added to compost heaps.
Composted or rotten horse manure should take at least six months. If the horse bedding is wood-based, manure should be at least a year old to ensure the wood in it has broken down completely, otherwise it takes nitrogen (a major nutrient required by plants) from the soil. However, fresh horse manure is a good compost activator, helping to speed up the rotting process and improving the quality of the compost produced.
Fresh horse manure usage
Fresh horse manure is not suitable for direct usage on plants as it will scorch roots and rot the stem. Apart from this negative effect, the bedding material will not have broken down.
Fresh horse manure can only be applied to soil that is prepared for growing plants for at least six to 12 months, depending on bedding type.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF USING HORSE MANURE

1. Fresh manure direct from stables may have several disadvantages. Even well-rotted manure is likely to contain weed seeds, both from hay that the horses have eaten and those that have blown onto manure heaped outside. The same goes for roots of perennial weeds that grow quickly in a manure heap – this means there could be problems of importing the weeds into the garden.

2. Weedkiller contamination is another potential danger in the use of horse manure. Pasture fields treated with hormone-type weedkiller used to combat broad-leaved weeds, are chemical that are undigestable material. If eaten by horses, it may persist for years and, if contaminated manure is added to the soil, can lead to damaged and distorted plants.

POULTRY MANURE ()

Poultry manure, a valuable byproduct of poultry farming, is a rich source of nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, making it an effective organic fertilizer that improves soil fertility and crop yields.
Poultry like fowl also produce manure called chicken manure, also known as “black gold”. It is one of the best nutrient boosts used to improve soil fertility.
One fowl produces approximately 8 to 11 pounds (3.6 to 5.0 kg) of manure monthly. If a farm has a total of 100 fowl, this means the farm will generate about 360kg to 500kg of manure per month.
The manure is an excellent source of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. These two nutrient content are at least twice as high as those found in other farm manures such as cow manure.
Also, fowl droppings that form chicken manure contains other materials including: urine, feathers, leftover feed, and coop bedding material such as straw and hay, pine or cedar shavings, grass clippings, shredded leaves, and recycled paper. These materials bring about the reasons for variation of NPK ratio in the manure. Apart from this,
the percentage of fowl feces and other materials is not the only variable in the nutrient content. The age of the fowl and the way the fowls are raised also play a role.

THE BENEFITS OF CHICKEN MANURE
As a non-synthetic organic fertilizer, chicken manure has numerous benefits.

1. It is a complete fertilizer that contains the macronutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, as well as important micronutrients needed for healthy plant growth.

2. SOIL AMENDMENT: Chicken manure is more than a fertilizer, though, it is also a good soil amendment. It adds organic matter to the soil, improves soil structure, increase moisture-holding of the soil, improve soil drainage capability, and aeration.

3. Soil high in organic matter is less prone to erosion and retains fertilizer better.

4. MICROBE FOOD: The organic matter in chicken manure feeds soil microbes and allows organic nutrients to break down faster, making them available to plants more quickly.

5. QUICK DECOMPOSITION:
Releases nutrients rapidly, ideal for crops needing immediate nutrition.

5. ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY:
Due to its high concentration, small amounts yield great results.

Chicken manure needs to be aged before adding it to the soil. It comes in two types: commercially processed in bags and the fresh manure. There are substantial differences in how to prepare and use them.

Bagged chicken manure can be bought. They are produced dried and pulverized or pelletized. On a weight-for-weight basis, dried manure is more concentrated than fresh manure, which contains up to 76 percent water. Dried manure is usually sterilized and odour-free.

Fresh manure on the other hand are sourced from backyard or farm chicken coop. It has a strong smell and may contain harmful pathogens such as E. coli or Salmonella. Unlike dried manure, it cannot be used as such; it must be composted or aged before it is applied, or else the high ammonia content in it will burn the plants.
Chicken manure from conventionally raised fowls may be contaminated with antibiotics. Little research is available about the amount of antibiotic residue in aged chicken manure. Using only organic chicken manure is the safer option.

HOW TO AGE CHICKEN MANURE
Aging fresh manure will destroy harmful pathogens and reduce its ammonia content. The pathogens in the manure stop reproducing at temperatures of 140 to 160°F. This is the temperature that can be reached in a compost pile, a common method of aging manure.

The best types of crops that grow best in chicken manure include;
Nitrogen-loving plants and vegetables. Others include; different types of tomatoes, peppers, eggplants, squash, melons, strawberries, cucumbers, beans, and some fruit trees, such as apple trees, that prefer less acidic soil.

Plants that will not grow in chicken manure
Chicken manure is more alkaline than acidic, so serious acid-loving plants do not like to grow in chicken manure. For example, plants such as blueberries, azaleas, and rhododendrons do not like to grow in chicken manure.

COMPOSITION:
Poultry manure consists of animal feces, urine, feathers, and bedding material (like wood shavings or sawdust).
NUTRIENT CONTENT:
It contains all 13 essential plant nutrients, including nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), and micronutrients. Fresh chicken manure contains 0.5% to 0.9% nitrogen, 0.4% to 0.5% phosphorus, and 1.2% to 1.7% potassium.

APPLICATION:
Poultry manure can be applied directly to fields or composted to create a more stable and less pungent fertilizer.
The application rate should be based on the nutrient needs of the plants and the manure’s nutrient content.
It’s important to consider the potential for nutrient imbalances or environmental impacts (e.g., water pollution) with improper application.
HANDLING AND STORAGE
Of all animal manure, poultry manure has the highest amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. It has a strong odour, especially when fresh or improperly managed. It may contain pathogens or heavy metals, so proper handling and storage are crucial.
Dried and pelleted poultry manure products are often sterilized during manufacture, so are less of a risk than fresh and composted poultry litter.
Optimal storage conditions for chicken manure include keeping it in a covered area and retaining its liquid, because a significant amount of nitrogen exists in the urine.

TYPES OF POULTRY MANURE:
a. POULTRY LITTER: The mix of bedding material, manure, and feathers.
b. COMPOSTED POULTRY MANURE: Poultry manure that has been composted to break down organic matter and reduce odors.
c. PELLETIZED POULTRY MANURE: Poultry manure that has been dried and pelleted for easier handling and storage.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF POULTRY MANURE
There are disadvantages to using fresh chicken manure if it is not aged properly.

1. It can burn the plants or introduce harmful pathogens into the soil. Bagged chicken manure does not have these problems if you follow the package’s directions.

2. POLLUTION
Mass applications of chicken manure may create an unpleasant odour.
In December 2011, the environmental group at Maryland asserted that water runoff from agricultural land fertilized with chicken manure was increasing the pollution levels of Chesapeake Bay. The group asserted that excessive phosphorus from the runoff was contributing to the increase of dead zones in the bay. In 2015, in efforts to address the matter before leaving office, Maryland Governor Martin O’Malley put a new regulation into use that “would have limited the amount of poultry manure that Eastern Shore farmers can use on their fields”. However, the following Governor Larry Hogan quickly absolved the new regulation after being sworn into office. The runoff problem has been attributed to the use of “an outdated scientific tool for calculating the correct amount of manure”. A proposed solution from scientists at the University of Maryland is to have farmers use a new (corrected) formula to calculate proper quantities of chicken manure for agricultural uses.

3. HUMAN DETERRENT
Chicken manure has been used as a human deterrent. In July 2013, in Abbotsford, British Columbia, city workers applied chicken manure at a tent encampment to deter homeless people from the area. The affected homeless planned on initiating small claims lawsuits for loss of property and property damage. One of the affected homeless people described the tactics of city workers as “a chicken shit way to do things”. The mayor of Abbotsford and the Fraser Valley city manager later apologized regarding the incident. Similar instances of using chicken manure in this manner have occurred in British Columbia in Surrey and in Port Coquitlam, the latter of which occurred “shortly after the Abbotsford incident”.

3. RISK OF PLANT burn:
High nitrogen content can harm plants if overused or unprocessed.

4. STRONG ODOUR:
Has an intense smell that can be unpleasant near populated areas.

5. INCREASED ACIDITY:
Overuse may increase soil acidity, negatively affecting some crops.

6. NEEDS PROCESSING:
May contain harmful bacteria such as Salmonella and E. coli, requiring proper treatment before use.

Soil testing before application ensures the correct manure type meets crop needs.

MEAL MANURES (BONE/FISH/BLOOD, Etc.)

This group of manures is highly reactive and suitable for land application on a variety of soils and crops, but mostly they are preferred for commercial horticultural crops, and they are used as a major component of livestock diet.

As compared to other manures, these meals are produced comparatively in lower quantity and used as a major part of livestock/poultry diet in developing countries. The major types of meals are:

1. Blood meals
2. Bone meals
3. Fish meals
4. Meat meals
5. Horn and hoof meals

These manures originate from the waste/byproducts of animals, usually the slaughter waste that is not intended for human consumption. They are also used as animal diet. Used as soil amendments, rather than creating an additional environmental issue through the incineration process.
Meals produced from animal byproducts are rich sources of mineral nutrients (both macro and micro), especially as the major source of P. They possess a higher degree of mineralization due to suitable ratio of highly soluble C and N which make them excellent alternatives for chemical fertilizers

a. FEATHER MEAL
Feathers are produced worldwide. They represent 3-7% weight of the live bird, therefore producing a considerable mass of protein. Approximately 50 billion fowls were used for human consumption in 2014. The feather from poultry slaughtering is traditionally treated as waste, with carbon emissions associated with its disposal. According to FAO in 2019, about 24 billion fowls were produced in 2018. Assuming that a fowl weighs 2 kg and that the average percentage of feathers is 5%, the overall amount of fowl feathers in 2018 can be estimated to be 2.4 million tonnes. Other poultry productions (ducks 1.12 billion heads, turkeys 466 million heads and geese 365 million heads) yield an additional 0.42 million tonnes of additional feathers, resulting in a total amount of feathers up to 2.8 million tonnes in 2018. Reusing feather meal produces extra value while reducing carbon emissions.
Feather meal or Feather powder, is a byproduct of processing operations from poultry slaughter house. it is made from poultry feathers which are partially hydrolyzed under pressure in the presence of Ca(OH)2. During the process, they are grinded under the elevated heat and pressure, and then dried. Although, its total nitrogen levels are fairly high (up to 12%), the bioavailability of this nitrogen may be low if not hydrolyzed beforehand.

It has a protein content of 80%–85%, and not less than 75% of the protein must be digestible by the pepsin digestibility method. Digestibility of feather meal products can vary depending on processing conditions, and the crude protein apparent digestibility coefficient of individual feather meal products dictates appropriate levels used in fish feeds.
Apart of it being used as fertilizers, feather meal is also used in formulated animal feed.

USING FEATHER MEAL AF LIVESTOCK FEED ADDITIVES
Feather meal cannot be used everywhere to feed all species. When used as animal feed, the indigestible keratin must be broken down (partially hydrolyzed) to become digestible for animals. One process for doing this is called rendering: steam pressure cookers with temperatures over 140 °C (284 °F) are used to “cook” and sterilize the feathers. It is then dried, cooled and ground into a powder for use as a protein source for animal feed (mostly ruminants and fish).
There are many other ways to achieve hydrolysis such as acid treatment, fermentation, and enzyme-processing.

As fertilizers, feather meal contains a large amount of nitrogen (15%) and sulfur (2.4%). It is rich in plant micronutrients such as iron and zinc.
Native (non-hydrolyzed) feather meal is a semi slow-release fertilizer. The nitrogen is slowly released through decomposition by soil microbes. It is not water-soluble and hence does not make a good liquid fertilizer. When adding it to a garden as a nitrogen source, it must be blended into the soil to start the decomposition to make the nitrogenous compounds available to the plants.
Compared to hydrolyzed feather meal, it releases nitrogen quickly.
IMPORTANCE OF FEATHER MEAL AS FERTILIZER

1. Being high-nitrogen fertilizers, both types of feather meal ( hydrolyzed and non-hydrolyzed) are useful for increasing the growth of green leaves.

2. Both are also good for encouraging the growth of microbes, improving soil structure, and activating the composting process.

REASONS FOR HYDROLYSING FEATHER BEFORE USAGE

1. Feather meal is a protein source of poor quality because its protein is deficient in amino acids that is essential in many livestock species, notably lysine, methionine, histidine and tryptophan.

2. Another issue is that keratin, the main component (80-100%) of feather proteins, is poorly digestible when raw. This highly polymerized protein contains about 8% cysteine, a sulphur amino acid that makes strong disulphur bonds between each other within the primary structure and contributes to the folding of the chain into secondary structures (alpha-helix and beta-sheet in a ratio of 2:1). While this makes raw feathers light, durable, and unable to stretch (unlike hair), it also makes feather keratin undigestible (digestibility < 5%).

The above gives reasons why it is necessary to hydrolyze feather meal in order to transform it into a valuable source of protein in animal feeding.
A thorough hydrolysis under controlled conditions destroys disulphur bonds between amino acids and convert feathers into hydrolized feathers. Hydrolized feathers are then dried to 8% moisture and ground to produce a valuable uniform hydrolized feather meal. All feather meals produced within the EU are reported to be hydrolized. Variability of feather meal between batches and between plants can be quite high due to differences in processes.

BLOOD MEAL
Blood meal, a dried animal blood byproduct, is a popular organic fertilizer rich in nitrogen, promoting lush green growth, especially for leafy greens, and can also deter certain pests. It is a byproduct of slaughterhouses, made from dried animal blood. Dried blood from cattle slaughterhouses can be used as organic N fertilizer because it contains about 10%–13% organic N. The main component of the fertilizer is hemoglobin, which is characterized by the presence of a prosthetic group containing iron (Fe).
It is also used as a high-protein animal feed and livestock dietary supplement. It is mainly added to supply dietary lysine for cattle, fish and poultry. Prior to use, it is sometimes mixed with molasses.
Alternatives to Blood Meal include feather meal and alfalfa meal. Blood meal is sometimes used as a composting activator.

It is a good source of nitrogen, which is crucial for healthy foliage and overall plant vigor.
Promotes Lush Growth:
It encourages lush, green growth, particularly in leafy greens like lettuce, spinach, and cabbage.
It improve soil by revitalizing soil that has been depleted of nutrients, especially nitrogen.
It also produce strong odour which can deter certain animals, like deer, moles, and ground squirrels, from entering gardens. To carry out this function, the blood needs to be dried before being used as blood meal and animal repellant. It is spread on gardens to deter pest animals such as rabbits. These animals smell the blood and are repelled by the odour. Several drying methods such as, oven drying, drum drying, flash drying or spray drying, and solar drying, are available to make inert powder of blood meal. In an experiment, blood meal was incubated in the soil for a period of 1 year and organic matter in the soil composition was evaluated at regular time intervals using a sophisticated technique like isoelectric focusing (IEF) and humification parameters. The results showed that the availability of the Fe increased during the incubation period due to the progressive degradation of the prosthetic group and the successive chelation of the Fe from the humic substances
It is easy to apply and long-lasting in the soil.
It is environmentally friendly,
it helps reduce waste.

BONE MEAL
Meat meal and bone meal can be applied as soil fertilizer. Meat/bone-meal fertilizer adds higher amounts of P than the chemical fertilizer (24 kg/ha) compared with 15 kg/ha of P added with Nitrogen–Phosphorus–Potassium (NPK) (21–4–7 kg/ha). Moreover, compared to phosphatic fertilizers, these organic fertilizers are free from HM contamination and contain >30% organic carbon. These fertilizers emit three-times less greenhouse gas (GHG) than chemical fertilizers. The success of these manures for immobilization of HMs lies in their Ca and P contents and adsorption sites, because HMs are bound to phosphate, dissolution of bone meal increases soil pH, which also results in immobilization . Bone meal reduces the Cd concentration by approximately 87% and leaching by 63%. Similar results had been reported in which application of bone meal decreased the exchangeable Cd fraction by 7% and also decreased the Cd in leachate up to 34%.

PIG MANURE
Swine manure is a valuable fertilizer that contains nutrients that plants need to grow. It can be used to fertilize crops and trees. 
Pig manure, a valuable resource, is rich in nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, making it a potential fertilizer for crops and improving soil quality. However, improper application can lead to environmental issues, so proper management and composting are crucial.
Pig slurry, a liquid form of pig manure, is a mixture of excrement, urine, and potentially water and bedding. Pig manure on the other hand can be solid or slurry, depending on the dry matter content.
Pig Slurry contain dry matter content which is relatively low, typically with less than 20% solids. It contains high amount of nutrients (N, P, and K).
It pose a lot of environmental issues. It can lead to environmental pollution if not managed properly, especially regarding its nitrate and phosphate levels.
Spain is the second leading European country with regard to pig population (22.4 million head in 2000), representing 18% of the total production within the European Union, with a substantial increase over the last 10 years (38% from 1990 to 2000). Therefore, amount of pig manure and pig slurry produced per day is so enomous.
Apart from the macronutrients supplied by pig manure and slurry, they also supply micronutrients. It contains all the 13 essential plant nutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Mn, Cu, Zn, Cl, B, Fe, and Mo). Also, improves Soil quality by enhancing soil texture, water holding capacity, and encourages soil microorganisms.

Apart from the above, pig manure also has several other advantages. Using pig manure can reduce the need for expensive commercial fertilizers.
It promotes sustainable agriculture by replenishing soil nutrients and improving soil health. Pig manure can lead to increased crop yields and improved plant growth.

Disadvantages of using pig manure and Management:

1. ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS:
Improper application can lead to nutrient runoff, water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions.

2. HEALTH RISKS:
Direct application of raw manure can pose health risks due to the presence of harmful organisms.

3. ODOUR AND BULKINESS:
Pig manure can have a strong odor and be bulky to handle and transport.

4. COMPOSTING:
Composting pig manure is recommended to reduce health risks, improve nutrient availability, and enhance soil quality.

SEPARATION AND TREATMENT:
Pig manure can be separated into solid and liquid fractions, which can be treated and utilized separately.
The solid fraction can be used as an organic fertilizer or to generate energy in biomass incineration plants and agricultural biogas generators.

BENEFITS  

1. NUTRIENTS: Contains macronutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, and Micronutrients like; sodium, iron, manganese, zinc, and copper.

2. SLOW RELEASE: Releases nutrients slowly into the soil

3. The nutrient content of swine manure varies depending on the age of the animals, ration, temperature, and other factors
APPLICATION
The amount of swine manure applied depends on the nutrient needs of the plants. It should only be applied when weather and soil conditions are favorable. It should not be applied to saturated or flooded soil 

RABBIT MANURE
Rabbit manure often called “bunny gold” or “bunny honey,” is a natural fertilizer that is rich in nutrients and can be used in gardens. It is dry,odourless, and in pellet form makes it suitable for direct use in the garden. It does not need composting, unlike other manures like fowl or cow manure. Also, it can be applied any time of the year and helps give plants a boost during the growing season.
Rabbit manure is a storehouse of nutrients when applied in the late fall and winter. It is a cold manure unlike “hot” manures of fowls or cow, therefore, there is no threat of burning plants and roots. It can be used as a top- dress, mulch around plants, bury in the ground under transplants or just working it into the soil right from the rabbitry.
In addition, rabbit manure is packed with nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and other essential nutrients that plants need for healthy growth. It’s direct application to the garden does not pose a risk of burning plants.

OTHER BENEFITS USES OF RABBIT MANURE

1. Improves Soil Structure, drainage, and moisture retention, making it a great addition to any garden bed.

2. It is easy to Handle because it is dry, odourless, and comes in pellet form, making it easy to collect, store, and apply.

3. Rabbit manure encourages the growth of beneficial microorganisms in the soil, which are essential for plant health.

4. Earthworms, which are beneficial for soil aeration and drainage, are attracted to rabbit manure.

5. COLD MANURE: Can be applied directly to gardens without composting first 

6. TIME-RELEASED: Takes several weeks to break down in the garden 

7. SAFE FOR PLANTS: Considered a “cold” manure, so there’s no threat of burning plant roots 

8. MANURE TEA – “Bunny Brew” – Rabbit manure tea is the coloured water that manure has been steeped in and is full of nutrients making a concentrated liquid organic garden fertilizer. The nutrients from the manure dissolve easily into the water were it can be added to sprayers or watering cans.

9. GROWING WORMS- Fresh rabbit manure is considered one of the best organic garden fertilizers, it is also the best worm feed and bedding. Worms can be grown and raise directly in the rabbit droppings under cages, or hutches, or making boxes and adding the manure to it to raise the worms. Rabbit manure along with wasted feed makes some of the best worm feed. When properly cared for, red worms eliminate unsightly manure piles, odour and fly problems. Both red worm or red wiggler(Eisenia fetida) are good for this purpose.
Apart from raising worms, rabbit manure is also used for production of Methane.

10. When applied to soil, it improves soil health by improving soil structure and also improving the life cycle of the beneficial microorganisms in the soil. It is also rich in many nutrients and very simple to use. One doe and her offspring will produce over one ton of manure in a year.

11. Rabbit manure is packed with nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and many minerals, lots of micro-nutrients, plus many other beneficial trace elements such as calcium, magnesium, boron, zinc, manganese, sulfur, copper, and cobalt etc.
N – P – K VALUES – Rabbit= N- 2.4 P- 1.4 K- .60, Chicken=N- 1.1 P-.80 K- .50, Sheep=N- .70 P- .30 K-.60, Horse=N- .70 P-.30 K- .60, Steer=N- .70 P-.30 K-.40, Dairy Cow=N- .25 P-.15 K-.25 As you can see by the nutrient values of farm manures and how they measure up and rabbit manure really shines

12. Rabbit manure also doesn’t smell as strong as other manures making it easy to use.

13. Nitrogen(N)- Rabbit manure is higher in nitrogen than sheep, goat, pig, chicken, cow or horse manure. Plants need nitrogen to produce a lush green growth. Nitrogen helps plants grow greener and stronger helping the plant reach its full potential. This is great for all those quick growing salad greens! Great for the early growth of tomatoes, corn, and many other vegetables.

14. Phosphorus(P)- Rabbit manure is also higher in phosphorus than the other manures. It helps with the transformation of solar energy to chemical energy. Which in turn helps with proper plant growth. Phosphorus also helps plants to withstand stress. Phosphorus in the soil encourages more and bigger blossoms helping with flowering and fruiting also great for root growth.

15. Potassium(K)- Potassium helps with fruit quality and reduction of disease plants will not grow without it. Plants use potassium as an enzyme to produce proteins and sugars.They also uses potassium to control water content.

16. Rabbit manure is one of the few fertilizers that will not burn plants when added directly to the garden and can be safely used on food plants.

HOW TO USE RABBIT MANURE:
DIRECT APPLICATION:

1. Rabbit manure can be spread directly onto garden beds or mixed into the soil.

2. COMPOSTING: Rabbit manure can be composted before use, especially if they are concerned about potential pathogens.

3. “BUNNY BREW” OR COMPOST TEA: “Bunny brew” or compost tea can be made by soaking rabbit manure in water, which can then be used as a liquid fertilizer.

4. SEEDLING NURSERY BLOCKS:
Rabbit manure compost can be used as a peat substitute in seedling nursery blocks.
5.BIOCHAR PRODUCTION:
Rabbit manure can be used as a feedstock for biochar production, a soil conditioner that improves plant growth.

6. POTTED PLANTS:
Rabbit manure can also be used for potted plants.

7. Use as a top-dressing, Use as mulch around plants, Bury in the ground under transplants, and Work into the soil. 

GUANO

Guano is the accumulated excrement of seabirds or bats. It is an effective fertilizer due to the high content of nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium, which are the key essential nutrients required for plant growth. Guano was also, to a lesser extent, sought for the production of gunpowder and other explosive materials.
Peruvian Bobby’s nest is made of pure guano.

SEABIRD GUANO
Seabird guano is the fecal excrement from marine birds and has an organic matter content greater than 40%, and is a source of nitrogen (N) and available phosphate (P2O5). Unlike most mammals, birds do not excrete urea, but uric acid, so that the amount of nitrogen per volume is much higher than in other animal excrement.
Seabird guano contains plant nutrients including nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium and potassium.

BAT GUANO

Bat guano can be found in caves throughout the world. Many cave ecosystems are dependent on bats to provide nutrients through their guano for their survival. Organisms with the ecosystem that depend on the guano include; bacteria, fungi, invertebrates, and vertebrates. Invertebrates inhabit guano piles, including fly larvae, nematodes, springtails, beetles, mites, pseudoscorpions, thrips, silverfish, moths, harvestmen, spiders, isopods, millipedes, centipedes, and barklice. The invertebrate communities associated with the guano depends on the bat species’ feeding guild.

Frugivorous bat guano has the greatest invertebrate diversity. Some invertebrates feed directly on the guano, while others consume the fungi that use it as a growth medium. Predators such as spiders depend on guano to support their prey base. Vertebrates that consume guano include: the bullhead catfish and larvae of the grotto salamander. Other organism that consume guano include: Shelta Cave crayfish, detritus, Ozark cavefish, a U.S. federally listed species.
The loss of bats from a cave can result in the extinction of species that rely on their guano. Unsustainable harvesting of bat guano may cause bats to abandon their roost.
Insectivorous bats, such as Mexican free-tailed bat, is an important producers of bat guano.
The guano contains organic matter content greater than 40%; nitrogen content of up to 6% ; and available phosphate (P2O5). Apart from this, the guano) of insectivorous bats consists of fine particles of insect exoskeleton, which are largely composed of chitin and trace elements needed for plant growth. It is slightly alkaline with an average pH of 7.25.
The chitin from insect exoskeletons is an essential compound needed by soil fungi to grow and expand. Chitin is a major component of fungal cell wall membranes. The growth of beneficial fungi adds to soil fertility.
Bat guano composition varies between species with different diets. Insectivorous bats are the only species that congregate in large enough numbers to produce sufficient guano for sustainable harvesting.

BIRD GUANO
Colonial birds and their guano deposits have an outsized role on the surrounding ecosystem. Bird guano stimulates productivity, though species richness may be lower on guano islands than islands without the deposits. Guano islands have a greater abundance of detritivorous beetles than islands without guano. The intertidal zone is inundated by the guano’s nutrients, causing algae to grow more rapidly and coalesce into algal mats. These algal mats are in turn colonized by invertebrates. The abundance of nutrients offshore of guano islands also supports coral reef ecosystems.
Bird guano contains about 11 to 16 percent nitrogen, 8 to 12 percent phosphoric acid, and 2 to 3 percent potash
Other types of birds that produce guano include
guanay cormorant, is one of the most important producer of guano.
Apart from Guano being used as a fertilizer, research is ongoing into its potential applications in other areas, such as the development of new materials and pharmaceuticals.

The post COMPARISON BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF FARMYARD MANURES (COW, SHEEP, RABBIT, AND POULTRY MANURE etc) appeared first on Supreme Light.

Eggs are among the most nutritious foods on the planet. Everyone one earth only know egg as a good source of protein. But it also contain other nutrients. A whole egg for example, fowl egg contains all the nutrients required to turn a single cell into a baby chick.
The primary role of egg production is to reproduce the species of the parent. All female animals produce eggs which are fertilized to produce a new offspring of their kind. But not all eggs produced by animals are consumable. The most widely consumed eggs are those from poultry, especially fowl. Other birds that produce eggs for consumption include; duck, turkey, geese, Ostrich, quil, Emu, turkey ,guinea fowl, pigeons, pheasants,and some other wild birds.

Their eggs especially  ducks  and ostriches, are eaten regularly but much less commonly than those of fowl. Duck eggs are consumed as food in parts of Europe, Africa and Asia. Goose eggs are also a food in many European countries. Commercial production of turkey and pigeon eggs is almost entirely confined to those used for producing turkey poults and young pigeons (squabs). Pheasant and quail eggs provide birds for hobby or sport use. People may also eat the eggs of  reptiles,  amphibians, and fish. Fish eggs consumed as food are known as roe or caviar.

Eggs are produced in various sizes. Fish eggs are very small in size, Quil eggs are a bit bigger in size, while ostrich egg is the largest egg from Aves.
All creatures that lay eggs especially hens are raised throughout the world, and mass production of fowl/chicken eggs is a global industry. In 2009, an estimated 62.1 million metric tons of eggs were produced worldwide from a total laying flock of approximately 6.4 billion hens. 

Smaller eggs, such as quail eggs, are used occasionally as a gourmet ingredient in Western countries. Eggs are a common everyday food in many parts of Asia, such as China and Thailand, with Asian production providing 59 percent of the world total in 2013.
The largest bird eggs, from ostriches, tend to be used only as special luxury food. Gull eggs are considered a delicacy in England, as well as in some Scandinavian countries, particularly in Norway. In some African countries, guineafowl eggs often are seen in marketplaces, especially in the spring of each year.  Pheasant  eggs and emu eggs are edible, but less widely available, sometimes they are obtainable from farmers, poulterers, or luxury grocery stores.
In many countries, wild bird eggs are protected by laws which prohibit the collecting or selling of them, or permit collection only during specific periods of the year.
In 2017, world production of chicken eggs was 80.1 million tonnes. The largest producers were China with 31.3 million of this total, the United States with 6.3 million, India at 4.8 million, Mexico at 2.8 million, Japan at 2.6 million, and Brazil and Russia with 2.5 million each. The largest egg factory in British Columbia, for example, ships 12 million eggs per week.
In year 2019, the United States produced 9.41 billion eggs, with 8.2 billion for table consumption and 1.2 billion for raising chicks. Americans are projected to each consume 279 eggs in 2019, the highest since 1973, but less than the 405 eggs eaten per person in 1945
The World Health Organization (WHO) specified a daily egg limit for healthy adults, but research suggests that moderate egg consumption, including up to one egg per day, is generally safe and not associated with increased cardiovascular disease risk.
This can be broken down in more detail. For healthy adults, one egg per day, is recommended as part of a balanced diet, is generally considered safe. While
WHO guiding principles for feeding breastfed and non-breastfed children state that “meat, poultry, fish or eggs should be eaten daily, or as often as possible”. WHO also states that children who consume eggs and flesh foods have higher intakes of various nutrients important for optimal linear growth. Many people can eat a couple of eggs per day. But the amount may vary for certain groups. In parts of the world where eggs are affordable and easily accessible, many people eat them regularly or even daily.
For a healthy adult with normal cholesterol levels and no significant underlying heart disease risk factors, some research suggests that 1–2 eggs per day can be safe. It may even be healthy and benefit human heart health.

NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF EGG
A single large boiled egg contains:

Vitamin A: 8% of the DV (daily value)
Folate: 6% of the DV
Pantothenic acid (vitamin B5): 14% of the DV
Vitamin B12: 23% of the DV
Riboflavin (vitamin B2): 20% of the DV
Phosphorus: 7% of the DV
Selenium: 28% of the DV
Eggs also contain decent amounts of vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin B6, calcium and zinc
This comes with 78 calories, 6 grams of protein, and 5 grams of fat.
Eggs also contain various trace nutrients that are important for health.
They also contain omega-3-enriched compunds, making it a more nutrient-dense food source. They contain higher amounts of omega-3 fat and are much higher in vitamins A and E.

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF EGG
The structural components of the egg include the shell and shell membranes (10 percent); the albumen or white (60 percent), including the thick albumen, the outer thin albumen, the inner thin albumen, and the chalazae; and the yolk (30 percent).
In a fertilized egg, the yolk supplies the nutrients and the albumen supplies the water necessary for the development of the embryo. In addition, the layers of albumen act as a cushion to protect the embryo from jarring movements, while the chalazae help to maintain the orientation of the embryo within the egg.
Schematic of a chicken egg:

Eggshell
Outer membrane
Inner membrane
Chalaza
Exterior albumen
Middle albumen
Vitelline membrane
Nucleus of Pander
Germinal disc (nucleus)
Yellow yolk
White yolk
Internal albumen
Chalaza
Air cell
Cuticula

Bird and reptile eggs consist of a protective eggshell, albumen (egg white), and vitellus (egg yolk), contained within various thin membranes. The egg yolk is suspended in the egg white by one or two spiral bands of tissue called the chalazae (from the Greek word χάλαζα, meaning ‘hailstone’ or ‘hard lump’). The shape of a chicken egg resembles a prolate spheroid with one end larger than the other and has cylindrical symmetry along the long axis.

AIR CELL:
The larger end of the egg contains an air cell that forms when the contents of the egg cool down and contract after it is laid. Chicken eggs are graded according to the size of this air cell, measured during candling. A very fresh egg has a small air cell and receives a grade of AA. As the size of the air cell increases and the quality of the egg decreases, the grade moves from AA to A to B. This provides a way of testing the age of an egg: as the air cell increases in size due to air being drawn through pores in the shell as water is lost, the egg becomes less dense and the larger end of the egg will rise to increasingly shallower depths when the egg is placed in a bowl of water. A very old egg will float in the water and should not be eaten, especially when foul odour is detected when the egg is cracked open.

SHELL
(EGGSHELL COLOUR)

Eggshell colour is caused by pigment deposition during egg formation in the  oviduct  and may vary according to species and breed. It ranges from white to brown to pink or speckled blue-green colour. The brown pigment is protoporphyrin IX, a precursor of heme, and the blue pigment is biliverdin, a product of the breakdown of heme.
BREEDS THAT LAY COLOURED EGGS
Fowl breeds with white ear lobes lay white eggs, whereas those with red ear lobes lay brown eggs. Although there is no significant link between shell colour and nutritional value. But there is a cultural preference for one colour over another. As candling is less effective with brown eggs, they have a significantly higher incidence of blood spots.

MEMBRANE
 (EGGSHELL MEMBRANE )

The eggshell membrane is a clear film lining the eggshell. It becomes visible when an egg is peeled after boiling. Primarily, it is composed of fibrous proteins such as  collagen type I. These membranes may be used commercially as a dietary supplement.

WHITE
 (EGG WHITE )
“White” is the common name for the clear liquid (also called the albumen or the glair/glaire) contained within an egg. It is colourless and transparent initially, but upon cooking it turns white and opaque. In fowl, it is formed from the layers of secretions of the anterior section of the hen oviduct during the passage of the egg. It forms around both fertilized and unfertilized yolks. The primary natural purpose of egg white is to protect the yolk and provide additional nutrition during the growth of the embryo.
Egg white consists primarily of approximately 90 percent water into which is dissolved, 10 percent  proteins  (including  albumins, mucoproteins, and globulins). Unlike the yolk, which is high in lipids (fats), egg white contains almost no fat and the  carbohydrate  content is less than one percent. Egg white has many uses in food and many other applications, including the preparation of vaccines, such as those for influenza.

YOLK
(EGG YOLK )
The yolk in a newly laid egg is round and firm. As the yolk ages, it absorbs water from the albumen, which increases its size and causes it to stretch and weaken the vitelline membrane (the clear casing enclosing the yolk). The resulting effect is a flattened and enlarged yolk shape.
Yolk colour is dependent on the diet of the hen. If the diet contains yellow or orange plant pigments known as xanthophylls, then they are deposited in the yolk and colour it. Lutein is the most abundant pigment in egg yolk. A diet without such colourful foods may result in an almost colourless yolk. Yolk colour is, for example, enhanced if the diet includes foods such as yellow  corn  and marigold petals. In places like the US, the use of artificial colour additives is prohibited.
All the fats, or lipids, as well as the cholesterol are found in the yolk. Yolk lipids are high in unsaturated fatty acids, with the ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids commonly being 2 to 1. By influencing the diet of the hen, some processors are able to market shell eggs with a higher ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids. Particular emphasis is being given to increasing the highly unsaturated long-chain omega-3 fatty acids by adding fish oil to the hen feed. Omega-3 fatty acids have been shown to play a role both in normal growth and development and in the prevention of many diseases.

ABNORMALITIES

Abnormalities that have been found in eggs purchased for human consumption include:

1. DOUBLE-YOLK EGGS: Atimes, an egg may contain two or more yolks. Most people believe that only big in size eggs possess two yolks. Two yolk in eggs only occur when ovulation takes place too rapidly, or when one yolk becomes joined with another yolk.

2. YOLKLESS EGGS: This egg contains only the white but no yolk. This usually occur during a pullet’s first effort to lay. It is produced before the hen’s laying mechanism is fully ready.

3. DOUBLE-SHELLED EGGS: An egg may have two or more outer shells due to a counter-peristalsis contraction. It usually occur when a second oocyte is released by the ovary before the first egg has completely traveled through the oviduct and been laid.

4. SHELL-LESS  OR  THIN-SHELLED EGGS:  This may be caused by egg drop syndrome.

POULTRY EGGS ON FARM
Most commercially farmed chicken eggs intended for human consumption are unfertilized, since the laying hens are kept without roosters. Fertile eggs may be eaten, with little nutritional difference when compared to the unfertilized. Fertile eggs will not contain a developed  embryo, as refrigeration temperatures inhibit cellular growth for an extended period of time. Sometimes an embryo is allowed to develop, but eaten before hatching as with balut.

EGG GRADING BY QUALITY AND SIZE (GRADING   CHICKEN EGG INTO SIZES)

a. SORTING
Eggs can be sorted by size and quality. In the United States eggs are sized on the basis of a minimum weight per dozen in ounces. One dozen extra large eggs weigh 27 ounces (765 grams); large eggs, 24 ounces; medium eggs, 21 ounces. Weight standards in other countries vary, but most are measured in metric units. For example, eggs might be sold in cartons of 10 eggs each. While in African countries like Nigeria, eggs are sold in crates of 30 pieces.
b. SIZING
In the US, eggs classified as “large” are those eggs that yields 50 grams by weight without shell. This same size of egg is classified as “medium” in Europe and “standard” in New Zealand. Such eggs that weigh 50-gram (1.8 oz)  provides approximately 70 kilocalories (290 kJ) of food energy and 6 grams of protein.
c. FACTORS THAT AFFECT EGG QUALITY

1. For boiled Eggs : Such eggs supply several nutrients, vitamins and minerals with Daily Value (DV per 100g) including:
 vitamin A (19% DV),
 riboflavin (42% DV),
 pantothenic acid (28% DV), 
vitamin B12 (46% DV), 
choline (60% DV),
 phosphorus (25% DV), 
zinc (11% DV)
and vitamin D (15% DV). 

2. Cooking methods also affect the nutritional values of eggs.

3. The diet of laying hens also may affect the nutritional quality of eggs. For instance, chicken eggs that are especially high in  omega-3 fatty acids are produced by feeding hens a diet containing  polyunsaturated  fats from sources such as fish oil, chia seeds, or flaxseeds.

4.  Pasture-raised free-range hens, which forage for their own food, also produce eggs that are relatively enriched in omega-3 fatty acids when compared to those of cage-raised chickens.

5. Egg contamination by pathogenic bacteria

Most eggs sold in modern supermarkets are approximately four to five days old. If kept refrigerated by the consumer, they will maintain good quality and flavour for about four weeks.

d. SCALE FOR GRADING EGGS
A SCALE
The U.S. Department of Agriculture grades eggs by the interior quality of the eggs and the appearance and condition of the egg shell. Eggs of any quality grade may differ in weight (size).

1. Grade AA and Grade A eggs: These are best eggs for frying and poaching, where appearance is important.

2. U.S. Grade AA
These eggs have whites that are thick and firm; have yolks that are high, round, and practically free from defects; and have clean, unbroken shells.

3. U.S. Grade A
These eggs have characteristics of Grade AA eggs except that the whites are “reasonably” firm.
This is the quality most often sold in stores.

4. U.S. Grade B
These eggs have whites that may be thinner and yolks that may be wider and flatter than eggs of higher grades. The shells must be unbroken, but may show slight stains.
This quality is seldom found in retail stores because usually they are used to make liquid, frozen, and dried egg products, as well as other egg-containing products.

In Australia and the European Union, eggs are graded by the hen raising method. That is, free range, battery caged methods, etc.
GRADING OF EGGS BASED ON BATTERY CAGE  AND  FREE RANGE SYSTEM
(LAYING HENS IN BATTERY CAGES )
Most Commercial poutry farm operate using the battery cage system to raise their hens. This system prevent over crowding, the hen engaging in wing-flapping, dust-bathing, scratching, pecking, perching, and nest-building. It also prevent theft to some level and predatory attack on the birds.
Hens in such confinement are easily debeaked to prevent them from harming each other and engaging in cannibalism. Eggs produced through this system are cleaner and less contaminated.

FREE RANGE SYSTEM

Free-range system is also used for laying hens as the hens are allowed to roam around in a fenced yard where they have assess to green grasses, pick on worms and insects etc during the day. Such hens are provided laying nest where they lay their eggs. Atimes, eggs are laid in hidden areas where farmers may not know. Therefore, farmers will have to move round the yard in search for eggs laid in the hidden areas. This sysem exposes the hen to many dangers ranging from weather condition to predation etc. Eggs produced through thuis system may be stained with poultry feces and other contaminants and would require extra cleaning.

Chicken eggs are also graded by size for the purpose of sales. Some maxi eggs may have double-yolks and some farms separate out double-yolk eggs for special sale.

1. Comparison of an egg and a maxi egg with a double-yolk – closed (1/2)

2. Comparison of an egg and a maxi egg with a double-yolk – opened (2/2)

3. Double-yolk egg – opened

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE SIZE OF EGGS LAID BY HEN

1. GENETICS:
Each breed of fowl has a genetically determined egg size range. For example, Rhode Island Reds lay larger eggs than Leghorns.

2. NUTRITION:
The diet fed to hens affect their egg size. For example, hens need more methionine, cysteine, and lysine to produce larger eggs. Also, protein is needed for large egg production. Reducing the hen’s protein intake can reduce egg size.

3. ENVIRONMENT:
Lighting is an important environmental factor that can affect egg size. Light significantly impacts the size of eggs laid. It primarily influence the bird’s reproductive cycle and maturity. Longer periods of exposing hen to light, especially during the early stages of a hen’s life, can lead to larger eggs by delaying sexual maturity and allowing for increased body weight before egg laying begins.

4. BODY WEIGHT:
The hen’s body weight also affects egg size. Heavier hens tend to lay larger eggs than light weighed hens.

5. HEALTH:
The hen’s health and well-being affect egg quality. Sick or stressed hens produce lower quality eggs.

6. AGE:
The age of the hen can affect egg size. Younger hens lay eggs with stronger shells.

7. OTHER FACTORS:
Other factors like; overcrowding, noisy environments, stress factors and disturbances can stress the hen and lead to poor egg quality.

Above all, proper storage is important for maintaining egg quality. Eggs should be arranged in crates and kept in a cool, dry place.

COLOUR OF EGGSHELL
Fowl eggs can be in White, speckled (red), and brown in colour. Producers and breeders often refer to brown eggs as “tinted”, while the speckled eggs preferred by some consumers are often referred to as being “red” in colour.
Eggshell colour has being a large cosmetic issue all over the world. The colour has no effect on egg quality or taste, it is a major issue in production due to regional and national preferences for specific colours, and the results of such preferences on demand. For example, in most regions of the United States, chicken eggs generally are white. However, brown eggs are more common in some parts of the Northeastern United States, particularly  New England, where a television jingle for years proclaimed “brown eggs are local eggs, and local eggs are fresh!”.

BREEDS THAT LAY COLOURED EGGS
Local fowl breeds, including the Rhode Island Red, lay brown eggs. Brown eggs are preferred in China, Costa Rica, Ireland, France, and the United Kingdom. In Brazil and Poland, white chicken eggs are generally regarded as industrial, and brown or reddish ones are preferred. Small farms and smallholdings, particularly in economically advanced nations, may sell eggs of widely varying colours and sizes, with combinations of white, brown, speckled (red), green, and blue (as laid by certain breeds, including araucanas, heritage skyline, and cream leg bar) eggs in the same box or carton, while the supermarkets at the same time sell mostly eggs from the larger producers, of the colour preferred in that nation or region.
Very dark brown eggs of Marans. This is a  French  breed of fowl

EFFECT OF CULTURE ON EGGSHELL COLOUR DEMAND
Cultural has being a major determinant for egg demand in many countries over years. The New York Times reported during the Second World War that housewives in Boston preferred brown eggs and those in New York preferred white eggs. Also, in the 70s, a magazine called the New Scientist magazine, reported that “Housewives are particularly fussy about the colour of their eggs, preferring even to pay more for brown eggs although white eggs are just as good”. As a result of these trends, brown eggs are usually more expensive to purchase in regions where white eggs are considered “normal”, due to lower production. In France and the United Kingdom, most supermarkets are supplied only brown eggs due to its demand over white eggs. While in Egypt, brown eggs are less demanded for, white eggs are most demand for.
In the 90s, Japanese housewives where reported to have high preference white colourd eggs. Hen egg colour was a distinct factor as at then in Japan.
Also in the 1970s, French institute reported production of blue chicken eggs from the Chilean araucana fowl. These eggs were stronger and more resilient to breakage.
With regards to culture, egg producers carefully consider cultural issues when selecting the breed or breeds of fowl used for production of eggs. as egg color varies between breeds. 

BENEFITS OF EGGS
EGGS have extraordinary benefits. They are the powerhouse of nutrition due to its amazing benefits in human’s body.

1. It is rich in protein for muscle growth and repair. The protein content in egg is relatively high, with all the essential amino acids in the right ratios.
Proteins are the main building blocks of the human body.
They help develop all sorts of tissues and molecules that serve both structural and functional purposes. It is important to get enough protein in the diet, and research suggests that the currently recommended amounts may be too low.
A single large egg containing six grams of protein. It also contain all the essential amino acids in the right ratios, so the body is well-equipped to make full use of the protein in them.

2. Eggs are a good source of vitamins, and minerals, including iodine, folate, and selenium. Some of the vitamins perform the following roles;
It is an excellent source of vitamin D for bone health.

Vitamin A supports eye health, vision, metabolism and cell development.

Vitamin B12 plays a role in keeping  nerve cells and blood cells healthy.

Vitamin E acts as an antioxidant to protect cells from oxidative damage.

Folate (or vitamin B9) helps the body make new red blood cells and helps with the growth and development of fetus during pregnancy.

3. Good source of collagen, which improves skin elasticity and reduces wrinkles

4. Egg contain lutein and zeaxanthin. Both are antioxidants that have major benefits for eye health.
One of the consequences of aging is that eyesight tends to get worse. Eggs is a good source of nutrients that help counteract some of the degenerative processes that can affect human eyes. Both lutein and zeaxanthin in eggs which are powerful antioxidants, accumulate in the retina of the eye. Both nutrients are majorly found in the egg yolks in large amounts.
In a 2006 study, eating 1 egg daily for 5 weeks increased blood levels of lutein by 26% and zeaxanthin by 38% in older adults.
A 2022 review of research suggests consuming adequate amounts of these nutrients can significantly reduce the risk of cataracts and macular degeneration, two very common eye disorders.
Eggs are also high in vitamin A, which deserves another mention here. Vitamin A deficiency is a common cause of blindness worldwide.

5. CONTAIN CHOLINE: Choline is an important nutrient that most people do not get enough of.
Eggs are a good dietary source of choline, an important nutrient often grouped with the B vitamins.
Choline is used to build cell membranes and has various other functions, including producing signaling molecules in the brain. Thus, boosts brain function and helps the brain becomes sharper
A deficiency in this nutrient can cause serious symptoms, but because the body makes choline, deficiency is not common. However, people who are pregnant or have certain genetic alterations may be more likely to have a choline deficiency.
Whole eggs are an excellent source of choline. A single egg contains about 147 mg of choline.

6. Eggs are a good source of collagen, which is essential for healthy skin, hair, and nails.

7. Its cholesterol level is low. Therefore, it is a good cholestral. Studies has shown that dietary cholesterol from eggs may not have the same negative impact on blood cholesterol levels.

8. A 2018 meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials found that consumption of eggs increases total cholesterol (TC),  LDL-C  and  HDL-C compared to no egg-consumption but not to low-egg control diets. 
HDL is a “good” cholesterol while LDL cholesterolis a bad cholesterol.
HDL stands for high-density lipoprotein ( often known as the “good” cholesterol).
People who have higher levels of HDL usually have a lower risk of heart disease, stroke, and other health problems, including people with type 2 diabetes.
In some studies referenced in a 2021 review of research, eating one egg daily was associated with increases in HDL cholesterol and decreases in LDL cholesterol.
Egg also helps cleans up bad cholesteral. Eggs cholesterol level are higher than many other foods. Still, they are also packed with beneficial bioactive compounds and other disease-fighting nutrients.
Recent observational studies and meta-analyses have found that eating eggs may not increase your risk of heart disease or its risk factors, like inflammation, stiffening of the arteries, and high cholesterol levels.
For example, one small RCT found that when compared with an egg-free high carb breakfast, eating 2 eggs or a 1/2 cup (118 mL) of liquid eggs for breakfast had no significant effects on blood cholesterol levels.
RCTs in people with diabetes have found that eating 6–12 eggs per week did not negatively affect total blood cholesterol levels or heart disease risk factors. Rather, it increased high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol.
HDL cholesterol removes other types of cholesterol from the blood, so higher HDL levels are favorable (reason for calling it good cholesterol). On the contrary, low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol is often referred to as the bad type of cholesterol because it raises the risk of heart disease.
For example, a recent meta-analysis of 17 RCTs found that people with high egg consumption for an extended period of time tend to have higher cholesterol levels than those who eat fewer eggs .

9. It helps boost energy levels

10. It speed up metabolism rate

11. It helps clear vision

12. It improves heart health

13. It reduces inflammation

14. It provides all 9 amino acids required by the human body.

15. Bird’s like fowl reproduce by laying fertile eggs.

16. It can be fed to fishes as source of dietary protein.

17. The foaming properties of the white or yolk of eggs are important in bakery products; egg yolk serves as an emulsifier in mayonnaise and salad oils; and the addition of eggs to meats or other foods enhances their binding properties.

18. Egg products, in the form of liquid, dried, or frozen eggs, are used as ingredients in many kinds of food products.

19. Eggs can be processed into liquid form. Liquid egg products may be delivered in a variety of packages, including bulk tank trucks, smaller portable tanks or “totes,” paper cartons, hermetically sealed polyethylene bags, lacquer-coated tins, and plastic pails. These products include liquid egg whites, liquid egg yolks, and various blends of the whites and yolks. Normally, liquid egg products are pasteurized at 60 °C (140 °F) for 3.5 minutes and have a shelf life of two to six days. Some liquid egg products are processed using ultrapasteurization and aseptic packaging techniques to extend their shelf life to about six weeks.

20. Dried egg products or dehydrated eggs are less expensive to ship, more convenient to use, and easier to store than fresh whole eggs. Spray dryers are used to produce a high-quality egg product with foaming and emulsification properties similar to those of fresh eggs. The dehydrated eggs are packed in containers ranging from small pouches to large drums, depending on their commercial application. Several types of dried egg products are produced for various applications in the food industry (e.g., cake mixes, salad dressings, pasta). These products include dried egg white solids, instant egg white solids, stabilized (glucose removed) whole egg solids, and various blends of whole egg and yolk with sugar or corn syrup. Most dried egg products have a storage life of one year when refrigerated.

21. Frozen egg products are often preferred as ingredients in certain food products. Salt, sugar, or corn syrup is normally added to yolks or whole eggs prior to freezing in order to prevent gelation or thickening of the products. Egg whites freeze well without any additives. Egg products are frozen at −23 °C (−9 °F) and are packed in different-sized pouches and waxed or plastic cartons. Products include egg whites, egg yolks, salted yolks, sugared yolks, salted whole eggs, sugared whole eggs, and various yolk and white blends with or without added sugar or salt. At frozen temperatures they have a shelf life of about one year.

22. Specialty egg products
crepe can be mixed with whipped cream and strawberry sauce.
A number of specialty egg products are available to both individual consumers and institutions. Commercial salad bars utilize cryogenically frozen and diced hard-cooked eggs and pickled or plain hard-cooked eggs. Several frozen, precooked egg products are available in markets, including egg pizza, scrambled eggs, omelettes, French toast, breakfast sandwiches, crepes, and quiches. Several low-cholesterol or cholesterol-free egg substitutes have been developed by replacing the egg yolk with vegetable oils, emulsifiers, stabilizers, colour, vitamins, and minerals. Fat-free egg substitutes have also been developed for commercial use.

23. Lutein is a type of organic pigment known as a carotenoid. Also found in salmon, carrots and sweet potatoes, an abundance of lutein creates a darker, richer yolk and has been shown to reduce age-related macular degeneration.

24. Egg whites and yolks have different properties. Egg whites contain about 60% of the total amount of protein in an egg, while the yolk contains more saturated fat and cholesterol.
Studies examining the fatty acids in egg yolk have shown that yolks have anti-inflammatory properties, antioxidant properties, help with memory improvement and provide cardiovascular protection. When eaten whole, other studies suggest eggs may positively impact muscle mass, although more extensive studies are needed.
Antioxidants help protect your body’s cells from damage caused by free radicals and associated chronic diseases like heart disease and cancer .
Believed to improve some biomarkers of heart disease. These include inflammatory biomarkers like blood levels of interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein.

25. More than half the calories found in eggs come from the fat in the yolk; 50 grams of chicken egg (the contents of an egg just large enough to be classified as “large” in the US, but “medium” in Europe) contains approximately five grams of fat. Saturated fat (palmitic, stearic, and myristic acids) makes up 27 percent of the fat in an egg. The egg white consists primarily of water (88 percent) and protein (11 percent), with no cholesterol and 0.2 percent fat.

26. TYPE 2 DIABETES:
A meta-analysis from 2013 found that eating four eggs per week was associated with a 29 percent increase in the relative risk of developing diabetes. Another meta-analysis from 2013 also supported the idea that egg consumption may lead to an increased incidence of type two diabetes. A 2016 meta-analysis suggested that association of egg consumption with increased risk of incident type 2 diabetes may be restricted to cohort studies from the United States.
A 2020 meta-analysis found that there was no overall association between moderate egg consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes and that the risk found in US studies was not found in European or Asian studies.

27. CANCER:
A 2015 meta-analysis found an association between higher egg consumption (five a week) with increased risk of breast cancer compared to no egg consumption. Another meta-analysis found that egg consumption may increase ovarian cancer risk. This was also supported by a 2021 umbrella review which found that egg consumption significantly increases the risk of ovarian cancer.
A 2019 meta-analysis found an association between high egg consumption and risk of upper aero-digestive tract cancers in hospital-based case-control studies.

28. CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH:
One systematic review and meta-analysis of egg consumption found that higher consumption of eggs (more than 1 egg/day) was associated with a significant reduction in risk of coronary artery disease. Another systematic review and meta-analysis of dietary cholesterol and egg consumption found that egg consumption was associated with an increased all-cause mortality and CVD mortality. These contrary results may be due to somewhat different methods of study selection and the use primarily of observational studies, where confounding factors are not controlled.
In 2020, two meta-analyses found that moderate egg consumption (up to one egg a day) is not associated with an increased cardiovascular disease risk. A 2020 umbrella review concluded that increased egg consumption is not associated with cardiovascular disease risk in the general population. Another umbrella review found no association between egg consumption and cardiovascular disorders.

29. A 2013 meta-analysis found no association between egg consumption and heart disease or stroke. A 2013 systematic review and meta-analysis found no association between egg consumption and cardiovascular disease or cardiovascular disease mortality, but did find egg consumption of more than once daily increased cardiovascular disease risk 1.69-fold in those with type 2 diabetes mellitus when compared to type 2 diabetics who ate less than one egg per week. Another 2013 meta-analysis found that eating four eggs per week increased the risk of cardiovascular disease by six percent.

30. Eggs are one of the largest sources of  phosphatidylcholine (lecithin) in the human diet. A study published in the scientific journal, Nature, showed that dietary phosphatidylcholine is digested by bacteria in the gut and eventually converted into the compound TMAO, a compound linked with increased heart disease.  Another study found that type 2 diabetes mellitus and kidney disease also increase TMAO levels and that evidence for a link between TMAO and cardiovascular diseases may be due to confounding or reverse causality.

31. Egg consumption does not increase hypertension risk. A 2016 meta-analysis found that consumption of up to one egg a day may contribute to a decreased risk of total stroke. Two recent meta-analyses found no association between egg intake and risk of stroke.

32. A 2019 meta-analysis revealed that egg consumption has no significant effect on serum biomarkers of inflammation. A 2021 review of clinical trials found that egg consumption has beneficial effects on macular pigment optical density and serum lutein.

33. Eggs consumption are linked to a reduced risk of heart disease. LDL cholesterol is generally known as the “bad” cholesterol.
Having high levels of LDL is linked to an increased risk of heart disease.
LDL is divided into subtypes based on the size of the particles.
There are small, dense LDL particles and large LDL particles.
Many studies included in a 2021 review of research suggest that people who have predominantly small, dense LDL particles have a higher risk of heart disease than people who have mostly large LDL particles.
Even if eggs tend to mildly raise LDL cholesterol in some people, some 2017 research suggests that eating eggs tends to mainly increase large (or “more buoyant”) LDL levels instead of the small, dense LDL particles, which may explain the association with a reduced risk of heart disease.
However, recent studies on populations in the United States and Italy have found egg consumption to be linked with an increased risk of death from heart disease and from all causes, so the research is mixed, and more randomized controlled trials are needed to confirm the benefits of egg consumption to heart health.

34.. Omega-3 or pastured eggs lower triglycerides:
Not all eggs are created equal. Their nutrient composition varies depending on how the hens were fed and raised.
Eggs from hens that were raised on pasture and/or fed omega-3 enriched feeds tend to be much higher in omega-3 fatty acids.
Omega-3 fatty acids can help reduce blood levels of triglycerides, a known risk factor for heart disease.
Studies suggest consuming omega-3-enriched eggs can effectively help lower blood triglycerides.
A small 2020 study of 20 participants found eating 2 omega-3-enriched eggs daily for five weeks reduced triglycerides by 10%. However, additional research with larger groups of participants is still needed.

35. WEIGHT LOSS: Eating enough egg is a good source of protein. Protein help
increase muscle mass,
lower blood pressure and
optimizing bone health. Apart from these, eggs are incredibly filling. They are high protein food, and protein is a satiating macronutrient. Therefore, when eaten and filled, it tends to make consume fewer calories, thus, help lose weight.
In one study of 50 adults who were overweight or had obesity, eating eggs and toast instead of cereal and milk with orange juice decreased feelings of hunger following the meal, prolonged the period of not being hungry and made them eat ~180 calories less at lunch 4 hours later.
In another study, eating eggs was associated with a 38% lower risk of excessive body fat and a 34% lower risk of central obesity, or visceral fat around your abdomen area, which is a known risk factor for metabolic syndrome.

36. The response to eating eggs can vary between individuals. In some people, eating cholesterol may not raise blood cholesterol or only mildly raise it. In the others, eggs or other sources of dietary cholesterol may lead to a large rise in blood cholesterol.
However, people with genetic disorders like familial hypercholesterolemia or carriers of a gene variant called APOE4 may want to consider eating eggs in moderation.

37. Eggs can be prepared with veggie-packed omelets, frittatas, and breakfast burritos. It can be boiled, scramble, panfry, or poached. It can also be incorporate into baked goods, sauces, salad dressings, shakshuka, stir-fries, and more.

CONTAMINATION
Egg cleaning on a farm

1. A health issue associated with eggs is contamination by pathogenic bacteria, such as Salmonella enteritidis. Contamination of eggs with other members of the genus Salmonella while exiting a female bird via the  cloaca  may occur, so care must be taken to prevent the egg shell from becoming contaminated with fecal matter. In commercial practice in the US, eggs are quickly washed with a sanitizing solution within minutes of beig laid. The risk of infection from raw or undercooked eggs is dependent in part upon the sanitary conditions under which the hens are kept.

2. Health experts advise people to refrigerate washed eggs, use them within two weeks, cook them thoroughly, and never consume raw eggs. 

3. As with meat, containers and surfaces that have been used to process raw eggs should not come in contact with ready-to-eat food.

4.  Egg shells also act as hermetic seals that guard against bacteria entering, but this seal can be broken through improper handling or if laid by unhealthy chickens. Most forms of contamination enter through such weaknesses in the shell.

5. Hens can be vaccinated against Salmonella.

 EGG ALLERGY

1. One of the most common  food allergies in infants is eggs.  Infants usually have the opportunity to grow out of this allergy during childhood, if exposure is minimized.

2. Allergic reactions against egg white are more common than reactions against egg yolks. In addition to true allergic reactions, some people experience a food intolerance to egg whites.  Food labeling practices in most developed countries now include eggs, egg products, and the processing of foods on equipment that also process foods containing eggs in a special allergen alert section of the ingredients on the labels.

3. Eggs are high in fat and cholesterol. For some people who are more sensitive to the cholesterol in eggs, eating eggs daily may increase blood cholesterol.

4. The reason most people want to avoid having more than one egg yolk each day is because yolk has saturated fat and can raise the level of LDL cholesterol (the bad cholesterol) in the blood. While the food eaten like those fortified with animal fats like butter, bacon grease and lard is not the only factor in developing high cholesterol, it is still important to keep them in mind when deciding what to put on the plate.
These foods contain saturated fats in them. “It’s better to use olive oil or some kind of plant-based oil instead, and egg whites can be eaten without adding a lot of animal fat by sautéing them with vegetables, salsa or different herbs.”

RECOMMENDATION

1. Eggs, cholesterol, and heart disease
Studies show that too much cholesterol, saturated fat, and trans fat from any source can increase blood cholesterol levels — particularly LDL cholesterol, which subsequently raises the risk of heart disease.
It is therefore recommended that only egg whites should be eaten.
On average, 1 large egg contains around 200 mg of cholesterol. The cholesterol is concentrated in the yolk. Therefore, some people eat only egg whites to reduce their cholesterol intake while still getting a good source of lean protein.
However, dismiss the yolk completely because of its cholesterol content is not adviceable. The yolk is also the part of the egg that’s packed with iron, vitamin D, carotenoids, and more.
These bioactive nutrients are thought to be responsible for many of the health-promoting qualities of eggs, like reduced inflammation, increased HDL cholesterol levels, and improved metabolic health.
On the other hand, people at high risk of heart disease or already have high cholesterol, should prioritize egg whites and moderate the number egg yolk they consume.

2. High in saturated fat: Saturated fats like butter, cheese, and processed meats tend to raise LDL cholesterol levels, especially when compared with unsaturated fats.

3. High in trans fat: Though some forms of trans fat do occur naturally, they are usually artificially made and found in fast foods, baked goods, and processed margarine and shortening.

4. Low in fiber: Adding high fiber foods like oats, beans, peas, seeds, and fruit to your diet might help reduce LDL cholesterol levels and reduce your overall risk of heart disease.

5. Too high in calories. For some people, limiting their calorie intake — and particularly calories from fat — has been shown to lower LDL cholesterol levels.
Thus, above all, when trying to decide how many eggs it’s safe to eat each day or week, it’s important to consider the whole diet to consume.

MANAGEMENT OF EGGS
More than 90 percent of all eggs are free of contamination at the time they are laid; contamination with Salmonella bacteria and with certain spoilage organisms occurs essentially afterward. Proper washing and sanitizing of eggs eliminates most Salmonella and spoilage organisms deposited on the shell. The organism Salmonella enteritidis, a common cause of gastroenteritis (a form of food poisoning), has been found to be transferred through the hen ovary in fewer than 1 percent of all eggs produced. Ovarian-transferred S. enteritidis can be controlled by thorough cooking of eggs (i.e., until there are no runny whites or yolk).

Certain spoilage organisms (e.g., Alcaligenes, Proteus, Pseudomonas, and some molds) may produce green, pink, black, colourless, and other rots in eggs after long periods of storage. However, since eggs move through market channels rapidly, the modern consumer seldom encounters spoiled eggs.

Fresh eggs should be gathered on the farm and stored in a cooler area of about 7 °C (45 °F). In US, automated machines are used to gather eggs. The eggs are then delivered to a central processing plant, where they are washed, sanitized, and graded. Grading involves the sorting of eggs into size and quality categories using automated machines. Flash candling (passing the eggs over a strong light source) detects any abnormalities such as cracked eggs and eggs containing blood spots or other defects.
Higher-grade eggs have a thick, upstanding white, an oval yolk, and a clean, smooth, unbroken shell.
Eggs collected are then sold. In Nigeria for example, eggs are sold in crates.

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Microbiology is found every where around us. It can be found in the air we breathe, in water bodies and the ground we walk on. Each person contains trillions of microorganisms, outnumbering human cells by a ratio of 10 to 1.
Apart from human, all other higher organisms existing till- date, including plants, insects, fish, rats, and apes etc, harbor microbiomes. For example, plants are believed to rather live in association with a large variety of microbes. These microbes live either inside (endosphere) or outside (episphere) of plant tissues. Among these microorganisms, bacteria and fungi are predominant. They play important roles such as increased nutrient availability, uptake nutrients by plants and increased plant stress tolerance. Thus, plant fitness (growth and survival) is the result of physical and physiological functions of the plant per se as well as the associated microbiome, which together are known as a plant holobiont.
The most common association between plants and microorganisms is that called root-arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) and legume-rhizobial symbioses. Both association influence the way roots uptake various nutrients from the soil. Some of these microbes cannot survive in the absence of the plant host (the ‘obligate symbionts’ including viruses, some bacteria and fungi), which inturn provides space, oxygen, proteins, and carbohydrates to the microorganisms.
Soil microbiology and soil health have gained increasing attention in recent years. Both are part of the factors that contribute to agricultural sustainability.
Soil microbiology is the study of microorganisms in soil, their functions, and how they affect soil properties. It’s a subdiscipline of environmental microbiology that study;
a. The functions of microorganisms like bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, parasites, and protozoa
b. How microorganisms interact with each other and other soil properties like plants and minerals
c. How microorganisms affect soil structure, nutrient processing, and recycling
d. How microorganisms affect soil salinity and acidity .
In soil microbiology, the microorganisms interact with each other and other soil properties such as plants and minerals. They play important roles in the ecology and physiology of plants. They govern nutrient processing and recycling in soil, and also affects the decomposition of organic matter in soil, soil salinity and soil acidity, thereby impacting soil fertility and crop health.
Key practices in soil microbiology include: composting, earthworms, soil analysis, nutrient cycling, crop rotation, no-till systems, cover crops, agroecosystems, green manures, organic agriculture.

COMMON SOIL MICROORGANISMS
Microbes are found everywhere, in human body, in the air, water bodies, on and in the ground and even in the most extreme environments, like volcanoes and in glaciers in the oceans etc. Microbes are the start of the soil food web as they are consumed by each another and by larger soil fauna like worms and slaters bugs.
There are millions of microorganisms in one gram of soil, including soil fungi, soil bacteria, actinomycetes, algae, archaea, ciliates ,single-celled organisms like protozoa such as amoebae, and animalia species such as nematodes. The biomass and activity of each microbial species varies and evolves throughout the soil’s lifecycle: fungi typically dominate the biomass of a healthy sample, despite their fragility and sensitivity, while bacteria remain the most resistant to changing conditions. Soil microbial biomass can range from several hundred to thousands of pounds per acre. Some of these microorganisms including bacteria, and viruses, perform important beneficial services for soil and plant health. But only a small portion are harmful and detrimental to plant and human. Variations in microbial levels and activity are directly correlated with soil management.
Generally speaking, soils with a high diversity of microorganisms tend to be healthier than those with low levels of diversity.

BACTERIA
Bacteria are a free living, single-celled organisms that are found everywhere, small only 1-3 micrometre long. They come in many different forms and shapes from rod shaped, round, corkscrew, rounded rods and comma shaped, and comma shaped.

FUNGI
Fungi are either single celled or complex multi-cellular organisms. They are mainly found in the soil and on plants. Fungi help to break down plant matter into nutrients and carbon, but they can also cause plant disease including rot, mildew, canker and rust.
Some of the beneficial fungi used to improve soil health and plant productivity include:
a. VASCULAR ARBUSCULAR
The association of AM fungi with plants has been known since 1842, and over 80 % of land plants are found associated with them . It is thought that AM fungi helped in the domestication of plants.

This fungi produce a substance called glomalin (a type of glycoprotein) which glues soil aggregates together and helps to stabilise the soil structure. Structures known as hyphae act like an extension of the plant, accessing water beyond the plant’s roots reach to supply nutrients and water making plants more resilient to droughts. Mycorrhizal fungi form a connection with mycorrhizae found on other plants, creating a chemical signalling link. When a plant is being attacked by an insect, the signalling chain is used to alert surrounding plants so they can take preventative measures to avoid attack. Mycorrhizae fungi are found on most plants except for Brassica and chenopod families of plants.

b. SAPROTROPHIC FUNGI
Saprotrophic fungi decompose dead plant and animal matter and make nutrients available for plants. They also make humus – a valuable resource needed by plants and the soil.

NEMATODES
Nematodes are microscopic round worms that move in the soil like snakes. Nematodes need a relatively damp environment and feed on bacteria, fungi, other nematodes (predatory nematodes) and plant roots. They help to increase nutrients within the soil as by excreting plant available nutrients including nitrogen and potassium. Nematodes can be used as a part of an integrated pest and disease management program as they feed on ground dwelling insects, like slugs, borers, grubs and some snails.
Nematodes exist many different forms, including beneficial and disease causing.

ARCHAEA
Archaea are similar to bacteria but they have a cell wall and a flagella (a tail), with which they use to swim.

PROTOZOAN
Protozoa are unicellular microorganisms and move by using a flagella or cilia. They consume bacteria and can attack fungi. By feeding on bacteria, protozoa help to release nutrients (including nitrogen and phosphorus) back into the soil.

CILIATE
Ciliates promote nutrient cycling in the soil. Compacted and anaerobic soils tend to contain higher levels of ciliates than healthier soils.
The hairlike structures of ciliates are used for movement and food gathering.

AMOEBA
Amoebae are single-celled microbes that move with the aid of pseudopodia.

VIRUS
Viruses transfer genes from host to host, and kill other microbes. They are responsible for the turnover and concentration of nutrients in the soil.
Several cultured microbes have been used for plant-microbe interaction and still, more of these enormous unculturable microbes are still being discovered and will continue to be discovered.
FUNCTIONS OF MICROBES IN THE SOIL

Microbes undertake a range of different roles in the soil. They play crucial roles in plant growth, development, and overall productivity. They perform the following functions;
a. Decomposition of plant matter
b. Making nutrients available to plants.
c. Microbes release vitamins and hormones that can trigger a plant’s immunity
d. Help to reduce plant’s susceptibility to disease, infection or pests.
e. Nitrogen fixing bacteria pull nitrogen out of the atmosphere and make it available to plants.
f. Release oxygen in the atmosphere
g. Solubilize phosphorus in the soil, making it available for plants. They convert phosphates to an inorganic form which is a more plant available format. They also
help address phosphorus deficiency by increasing the soluble phosphorus content of soil.
h. Soil structure and interactions among microorganisms (including soil fungi, soil bacteria and species like nematodes) can impact soil biology and biochemistry and other properties of soil.

As a key components, soil microorganisms impact soil health in various ways. The major organisms involved in the improvement of soil health include; Soil microbes, soil bacteria, and soil organisms.
The microbial structure of soil is proportional to the organic matter content, giving soil microbes, soil bacteria and soil organisms a key role in soil health. This means that soils that have large amounts of regularly added organic residues tend to support more soil microorganisms, which contribute to overall soil health.
In return of the above benefits derived by plants from microbs, plants supply carbohydrates (simple sugars) to attract microbes to compensate for nutrients and water needs of the organisms. The carbohydrates also increase the liable carbon fraction within the soil. These carbohydrates can be noticed in the soil when a plant is pulled out of the ground and the soil washed off, a whiteish foam found around the roots is the carbohydrates or liquid carbon.

SOIL MICROBIAL LIFE CYCLE

The soil microbiome is always in a different state of flux, with microbes ebbing between different stages of their life cycle, from early development to exponential growth to a lag phase before dying. As they die, the microbes release nutrients in a soluble form to the plant. In certain circumstances, the plant actually engulfs the microbe as a source of food, providing the plant with essential nutrients. Dead microbes (known as a necromass) excreted by the plants increase soil carbon and release additional nutrients for plant uptake.

BACTERIA AND FUNGI RATIO

A healthy soils generally have a fungal-dominated community. Both fungi and bacteria play different roles in the soil, but the ratio must not pass the threshold. A highly productive agricultural soils tend to have ratios of fungal to bacterial biomass near 1:1 or somewhat less. Forests tend to have fungal-dominated food webs. The ratio of fungal to bacterial biomass may be 5:1 to 10:1 in a deciduous forest and 100:1 to 1000:1 in a coniferous forest
The fungal to bacterial ratio is important because of the different lifestyles of bacteria and fungi. Bacteria have faster turnover rates (i.e. short life cycles), such that bacterial-dominated communities are linked to faster rates of nitrogen cycling and subsequent N losses from soil. In contrast, fungi have slower life cycles, which result in greater retention of nitrogen in the soil. Due to their extensive hyphal networks, fungi are also thought to be larger contributors to both the production of enzymes involved in decomposition and aggregate formation, and resistant to drought. On a community-level, fungal hyphae are the “internet of the soil” , they facilitate connections among other microbes and plants, helping plants to acquire nutrients and alleviate plant water stress. This does not mean bacteria are not good. It is the balance between bacteria and fungi that seems to be most important.
fungal-to-bacterial ratios are critical to soil health and sustainability. This is because soils with more fungi relative to bacteria (higher fungal to bacterial ratios) are beneficial because fungi are more efficient at breaking down complex organic matter, particularly lignin and cellulose, which are abundant in plant residues, leading to improved nutrient cycling, better carbon sequestration, and healthier plant growth, especially in environments with high levels of organic matter or low nutrient availability. Thus, making degraded soils to regain their structure faster, retain more nitrogen and are more resilient to drought and floods. This is often observed in forests or grasslands compared to intensively managed agricultural soils. 
In addition, all bacterial and fungi are not equal. Ideally, a prairie soil has a mix of fast and slow growing bacteria and a diversity of symbiotic fungi so that prairie plants can find an ideal match. Finally, while microbes are the foundation of a healthy soil, they are part of a larger soil food web that must be intact in order to sustain the microbial community.

REASONS FOR MAINTAINING A HIGHER FUNGAL-TO-BACTERIAL RATIO:

a. DECOMPOSITION OF COMPLEX ORGANIC MATTER: Fungi, with their hyphae, can access and break down larger organic particles that bacteria cannot reach, making them key players in decomposing plant litter and woody debris. 
b. NUTRIENT CYCLING: Fungi can effectively mineralize nutrients like phosphorus and nitrogen from organic matter, making them available to plants, especially in nutrient-poor soils. 
c. IMPROVE SOIL STRUCTURE:
Fungal hyphae can bind soil particles together, creating better soil aggregation and improving water infiltration and aeration. 
d. MYCORRHIZAL ASSOCIATIONS:
Many plants form symbiotic relationships with mycorrhizal fungi enhance nutrient uptake, particularly phosphorus, from the soil. 
e. CARBON SEQUESTRATION: Fungi can store more carbon in their biomass compared to bacteria, contributing to long-term carbon storage in the soil. 

FACTORS THAT CAN INCREASE THE FUNGI-TO-BACTERIAL RATIO:
The ratio between fungi and bacteria can affect the type of plants grown. To get more fungi in the soil, farmers, agronomists,etc carry out composting, buy mycorrhizal fungi and add to the planting hole when planting new plants.
There are many other different ways to increase either the fungi or bacterial ratio in the soil. Such ways include;
a. HIGH ORGANIC MATTER INPUT:
Adding large amounts of organic matter with a high carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratio, like wood chips, straw, leaves litters, or aged manure, favour fungal growth, while minimizing readily available nitrogen sources that promote bacterial dominance.
b. LOW SOIL DISTURBANCE: Minimal tillage or no-till farming practices can preserve fungal hyphae networks. 
c. LOWER SOIL pH: Fungi tend to thrive in slightly acidic conditions, where bacteria may be less active. 
d. DROUGHT CONDITIONS: In dry environments, fungi can access water more efficiently due to their hyphae, giving them an advantage over bacteria. 
e. USE A FUNGAL DOMINATED COMPOST, COMPOST TEA OR SPRAY OUT FISH HYDROLYSATE.
For a more bacterially active soil, use a bacterial dominated compost or compost tea, or spray out a simple sugar like molasses.
f. MULCHING: By applying a layer of mulch on the soil surface, this maintain moisture levels and provide a habitat for fungi. The mulch materials to use must contain high C:N ratio, like wood chips or shredded bark.
g. INCORPORATING MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI INOCULANTS:
Introduction of beneficial mycorrhizal fungi directly into the soil through inoculants will form symbiotic relationships with plant roots and enhance nutrient uptake.
h. AVOID ADDING HIGH-NITROGEN MATERIALS
Avoid adding high nitrogen materials like grass clippings or fresh manure in large quantities, as they promote bacterial growth.
i. NO-TILL PRACTICES:
Minimize soil disturbance to preserve existing fungal hyphae networks.
j. COMPOSTING TECHNIQUES:
Create a compost pile with a higher C:N ratio by adding more woody materials to promote fungal activity during decomposition.
k. PLANT SELECTION: Choose plants known to form strong mycorrhizal associations, as they can indirectly increase the fungal population in the soil. etc

PLANT MICROBIOMES

The plant microbiome refers to all microorganisms associated with a living plant or Plants live in association with diverse microorganisms. These microbes interact closely with plants, influencing their health and performance. They (microbes) live either inside (endosphere) or outside (episphere) of plant tissues. Meaning that they live in different plant environment. Understanding the role of the microbiome in plant health, production, and nutrient cycles is just as important as focusing on the plant itself. Different microbiomes exist within the plant environment:

a. Phyllosphere – Microbes on leaves, stems, and flowers. They are exposed to environmental factors like wind and temperature.
b. Endosphere – Microbes inside plant tissues, such as roots, stems, and leaves, which can enter through root tips or natural openings.
c. Rhizosphere – Microbes surrounding plant roots, aiding nutrient availability and supporting plant resilience.

Maintaining a balanced microbial environment is essential, as not all microbes benefit crops. The interaction between beneficial and harmful microbs varies between annual crops (e.g., maize, wheat, soybeans) and perennial crops (e.g., trees, vineyards).
Microbiomes play a major role in agriculture. They can help make agriculture more sustainable by reducing the need for fertilizers and pesticides. They can also help combate biotic stress that can damage their growth and development.
Some of the organisms found in plant microbiome include: bacteria, fungi, protists, nematodes, and viruses.

HOW PLANT MICROBIOMES BENEFIT PLANTS
a. PLANT GROWTH: Microbiomes can help plants grow and develop.
b. NUTRIENT UPTAKE: Microbiomes help plants take in nutrients from the soil.
c. STRESS TOLERANCE: Microbiomes help plants tolerate stress factors like drought.
d. PATHOGEN RESISTANCE: Microbiomes help plants defend themselves against pathogens.

TYPES OF MICROBIOMES

1. RHIZOSPHERE MICROBIOME
The rhizosphere comprises the 1–10 mm zone of soil surrounding the roots that is under the influence of the plant where root exudates, mucilage and dead plant cells are deposited . A diverse array of organisms specialize in living in the rhizosphere, including bacteria, fungi, oomycetes, nematodes, algae, protozoa, viruses, and archaea. The most frequently studied beneficial rhizosphere organisms are mycorrhizae, rhizobium bacteria, plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), and biocontrol microbes. Among the prokaryotes in the rhizosphere, the most frequent bacteria are within the Acidobacteria, Proteobacteria, Planctomycetes, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Firmicutes. Certain bacterial groups (e. g. Actinobacteria, Xanthomonadaceae) are less abundant in the rhizosphere than in nearby bulk soil.
Mycorrhizal fungi are abundant members of the rhizosphere community, and have been found in over 200,000 plant species, and are estimated to associate with over 80 % of all plants. These mycorrhizae–root associations play profound roles in land ecosystems by regulating nutrient and carbon cycles. Mycorrhizae are integral to plant health because they provide up to 80 % of N and P requirements. In return, the fungi obtain carbohydrates and lipids from host plants.

2. PHYLLOSPHERE MICROBIOME
The aerial surface of a plant (stem, leaf, flower, fruit) is called the phyllosphere and is considered comparatively nutrient poor when compared to the rhizosphere and endosphere. The environment in the phyllosphere is more dynamic than the rhizosphere and endosphere environments. Microorganisms also live in this above-ground parts of plants. These microbial colonizers are subjected to diurnal and seasonal fluctuations of heat, moisture, and radiation. In addition, these environmental elements affect plant physiology (such as photosynthesis, respiration, water uptake etc.) and indirectly influence microbiome composition. Rain and wind also cause temporal variation to the phyllosphere microbiome. Overall, there remains high species richness in phyllosphere communities. Fungal communities are highly variable in the phyllosphere of temperate regions and are more diverse than in tropical regions. There can be up to 107 microbes per cm2 present on leaf surfaces of plants, and thus the bacterial population of the phyllosphere on a global scale is estimated to be 1026 cells. The population size of the fungal phyllosphere is likely to be smaller. Phyllosphere microbes from different plants appear to be somewhat similar at high levels of taxa, but at the lower levels taxa there remain significant differences. This indicates that microorganisms may need finely tuned metabolic adjustment to survive in phyllosphere environment. Proteobacteria seems to be the dominant colonizers, with Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria also predominant in phyllospheres. Although there are similarities between the rhizosphere and soil microbial communities, very low similarity has been reported between phyllosphere communities and those in open air.

3. ENDOSPHERE MICROBIOME
Some microorganisms, such as endophytes, penetrate and occupy the plant internal tissues, forming the endospheric microbiome. The AM and other endophytic fungi are the dominant colonizers of the endosphere. Bacteria, and to some degree Archaea, are important members of endosphere communities. Some of these endophytic microbes interact with their host and provide obvious benefits to plants. Unlike the rhizosphere and the rhizoplane, the endospheres harbor highly specific microbial communities. The root endophytic community can be very distinct from that of the adjacent soil community. In general, diversity of the endophytic community is lower than the diversity of the microbial community outside the plant. The identity and diversity of the endophytic microbiome of above-and below-ground tissues may also differ within the plant.

In addition to the rhizospheric and endophytic microbiomes, phyllosphere community composition also depends on plant identity. Plant community influences phyllosphere microbiomes by directly shaping the composition of microbial species present on leaves through factors like leaf chemistry, morphology, and developmental stage, which are determined by the plant species present, thus influencing which microbes can successfully colonize and thrive on the leaf surface; essentially, different plant species will attract different microbial communities to their phyllospheres due to their unique characteristics. For example, the leaves of plants produce chemical compounds including waxes, sugars, and phenolic compounds, which influence and attract microbes to adhere to and colonize the leaf surface.
Factors like leaf shape, size, and surface texture can affect the microenvironment on the leaf, impacting the types of microbes that can establish themselves.
Lastly, the different stages of plant growth (seedling, flowering, senescence) do result in changes in leaf chemistry and morphology, causing shifts in the phyllosphere microbiome composition. And the diversity in plant community can provide a wider range of microhabitats for different microbial species, leading to a richer and more complex phyllosphere microbiome.

DRIVERSITY OF PLANT MICROBIOME COMPOSITION
Plant microbiome structure is influenced by complex interactions between hosts, microbes, and associated environmental factors such as climate, soil, cultivation practices etc.
a. HOST FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PLANT MICROBIOME COMMUNITY COMPOSITION
i. PLANT SPECIES
The genetic make up of the host plant has a significant influence on the identity of its microbiome. The plant determines which microbes can colonize its tissues, through the production of specific root exudates and phytohormones, and by regulating its immune response, thus shaping the composition and abundance of microbial species that can thrive on or within the plant.
Genetically, different plant genotypes naturally attract different microbial communities due to variations in their genes controlling root exudates, cell wall composition, and immune responses, which can selectively favor certain microbial taxa.
ii. PLANT DEVELOPMENT STAGE:
As a plant grows and develops, its microbiome composition changes, with different microbial communities being present at different stages like seedling, flowering, and fruiting.
Different plant species growing adjacent to one another can harbor distinct microbiomes. They release different chemical compounds from their roots, including sugars, amino acids, and organic acids, which act as signals to attract specific microbes and influence their colonization patterns. For example, a comparative survey carried out on the microbiomes around different cereal roots of maize, sorghum, and wheat showed that different community composition of microbs colonized these plant’s root zones. This was supported by a research carried out to determine the microbiome compositions of grapevines and some weed species roots and rhizospheres using 16S rRNA gene from the plants grown in the same field, it was discovered that these species hosted significantly different microbiomes in the roots and rhizosphere, with the more pronounced difference in the root communities. Plants that are distantly-related phylogenetically show greater variation in associated microbiome compositions, suggesting a role of plant phylogeny in structuring root microbiomes .
Plant species also influences the identity and diversity of endophytic communities.
A plant community influences endophytic microbiomes by shaping the composition and diversity of microbes present within the plants through factors like host plant species, root exudates, surrounding plant species, and environmental conditions, which ultimately determine which microbial communities can successfully colonize and thrive within the plant tissues, impacting the plant’s overall health and resilience. For instance, plant’s immune system plays a crucial role in recognizing and interacting with microbes, either allowing beneficial microbes to colonize or actively defending against potential pathogens, thus shaping microbiome composition.
In summary, different plant species naturally attract different microbial communities due to variations in their root exudates, which act as chemical signals to specific microbes, leading to a unique endophytic microbiome for each plant species. This had been supported by a research study where differences in endophytic community composition in potato and Eucalyptus plants were determined. The most abundant bacterial root endophytes were rare in the potato or absent in Eucalyptus and vice-versa. This suggest that the host plant selects its endophytic microbes.
Apart from this, the presence of neighboring plants can impact the endophytic microbiome of a focal plant by influencing the availability of nutrients, competition for space, and potential exchange of microbes through the soil.
The life stages of a plant, like seedling, flowering, and senescence, can also affect the composition of the endophytic microbiome as the plant’s physiological needs change. And lastly, abiotic conditions like soil type, moisture content, nutrient availability, and temperature can influence the overall microbial community in the soil, impacting which microbes are able to colonize the plant roots and become endophytes.

THE EFFECTS OF HOST PLANT SPECIES IN RECRUITING MICROBES FROM THE SURROUNDING ENVIRONMENT
The effect of pant species in recruiting microbs from the surrounding environment indicate that plants have evolved traits that govern root microbiome assemblages . For example, endosphere, rhizosphere community composition are correlated with host taxonomy. Researchers have discovered that the rhizosphere and root microbiomes are mostly influenced by soil type, and the nodule while root endophytes are influenced by plant species.
Apart from the factors that influence the microbiomes above, plant traits such as leaf permeability, wettability and topography and physicochemical properties, cuticle chemistry, root exudates, antibiotic production, and inherent plant immunity to invasion by microbes may also play a major role in influencing plant microbiomes.

iii. PLANT GENOTYPES
The genotype of a plant is a word used to describe the genetic make – up of the plant. It can be described as the whole genome, the DNA sequence of individual genes or a collection of scores at different genetic markers.
Plant genotype plays a crucial role in shaping the structure and composition of plant microbiomes associated with roots, leaves, fruits, and seeds; influencing diversity, community structure, and even co-occurrence networks, especially in fruits, leaves, and soil.
Plant root produce exudates. These exudates are specific to the host plant, can modulate the rhizosphere community and select specific root microbiomes, contributing to host-specific plant microbiomes. Apart from this, plants can cope with biotic and abiotic stresses based on their genotype which influences the plant metabolome (e.g., exudates, VOCs). This can affect microbiome assembly.
The effects of plant genotype on microbiomes can vary depending on the environment, with genotype effects being strong in some environments but absent in others. The genotype of a particular plant specie also influence the difference in microbe community composition. For examples: Studies have shown that plant genotype influences the bacterial and fungal communities associated with different plant species, including Boechera stricta, Medicago trunculata, Glycine max, and Olea europaea. Genetics of the host also shape the plant-microbiome structure. For example, OTUs in three different potato varieties were cultivar-specific. Similarly, cultivar-dependent effects have been reported for the bacterial communities in young potato rhizospheres. It has been reported in a study that genotype contributed to about 6% of the variation of the microbiome composition in the rhizosphere region. A larger influence of host genotype on community composition has also been reported. Genotype-dependent microbiome community structuring has been reported for sweet potato, wheat, pea, and oat. Bacteria such as Acinetobacter, Chryseobacterium, Pseudomonas, Sphingobium, and Stenotrophomonas were more abundant in low-starch cultivars than those having high-starch contents. Within-species genetic variability can influence microbiome composition in leaf tissues. To support this, a field experiment was carried out to unravel driversity in community composition of bacteria associated with leaves and roots of Boechera stricta. The findings suggested that the host genotype influences leaf community, but the root microbiome was variable at different collection sites.

iv. PLANT ORGAN
Different plant tissues host distinct microbiome communities. The plant-microbiome interaction occurs at the rhizosphere, endosphere, and phyllosphere where different tissues and organs lies.
Root exudates can favor the recruitment of a beneficial microbiome in the rhizosphere.
While plant topology and phytochemistry influence the recruitment of the phyllosphere microbiome etc. With these, diverse plant strategies selectively recruit beneficial microbiomes.
Plant organs, such as roots, stems, leaves, and flowers, each harbor distinct microbial communities (microbiomes) that are influenced by the plant’s own characteristics and the surrounding environment, impacting plant health and development. The rhizosphere (root environment) for example, where roots are found releases root exudates (substances released by roots) which attract specific microbes, influencing the composition of the rhizosphere microbiome.
At the endosphere (internal tissues) where endophytes are found, microbes that live within plant tissues, are influenced by plant species, genotype, and developmental stage.
And at the Phyllosphere (leaf surface), plant topology, phytochemistry, and environmental factors like rain and wind influence the phyllosphere microbiome.
A study reported that each surface and internal tissue of plants may harbor distinct microbial communities and that the role of tissue-type was greater than host type and the microbiome of the soil. This may be because the adaptation strategies of various tissues may affect the microbes in colonizing them for community composition.
For instance, surface tissues at the phyllosphere are exposed to constant fluctuations of weather and have relatively poor nutritional status compared to the root or internal tissues at the rhizosphere and endosphere. Therefore, microbes colonizing the leaf surface need to be adapted in these conditions.
Fungi in the rhizosphere are directly influenced by plant roots, play a crucial role in plant health by promoting growth, enhancing nutrient uptake, and protecting against pathogens and abiotic stresses. Fungi, like Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), form symbiotic relationships with plant roots, enhancing nutrient and water uptake.
Rhizosphere fungi can produce plant growth-promoting substances like phytohormones (e.g., auxins, gibberellins) and stimulate root development. They can also solubilize and make available nutrients like phosphorus and iron, which are often unavailable to plants in the soil.
Rhizosphere fungi can outcompete or inhibit the growth of plant pathogens, reducing the risk of root diseases. Some fungi produce antimicrobial compounds that can directly harm pathogens.
They can also induce systemic resistance in plants, making them more resilient to various stresses.
Rhizosphere fungi can also help plants tolerate abiotic stresses like drought, salinity, and heavy metal contamination. They can improve nutrient uptake under stress conditions and help plants adapt to changing environmental conditions.
Fungi within the plant endosphere (the interior of plant tissues), can have various effects, ranging from mutualistic to pathogenic, and influence plant health, growth, and resistance to stressors.
Some of these fungi enhance nutrient uptake by plants, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, which are essential for plant growth. Some endophytes can improve plant tolerance to abiotic stresses like drought, salinity, and heavy metals. While Some fungal endophytes produce compounds that protect plants against pathogens, acting as a natural defense mechanism. Apart from all these, some
endophytes are growth promoter. They produce plant hormones like auxins and cytokinins, which stimulate root and shoot development. Some can bioremediate
pollutants and toxins in the soil, thus improving soil health and promoting plant growth etc.
And lastly, The phyllosphere microbiome, including fungi, plays a crucial role in plant health, influencing growth, stress tolerance, nutrient acquisition, and disease resistance, with interactions ranging from mutualism to antagonism. Some phyllosphere fungi play a mutualists role by promoting plant growth and development by enhancing nutrient uptake and providing hormones. Some of them can help plants cope with environmental stressors like drought, salinity, and heavy metals. While some contribute to plant defense mechanism against pathogens. They achieve this by competing with the pathogen for resources, production of antimicrobial compounds, and induction of plant dwfencw response. They also facilitate nutrient uptake by plants, making essential elements more available and influence seed germination and seedling establishment, contributing to plant survival and reproduction. 
It should be noted that as microbs within the three microbiomes perform a beneficial role, so also some have negative effects.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL MICROBIOMES
These factors may include soil pH, salinity, soil type, soil structure, soil moisture and soil organic matter and exudates, which are most relevant for below-ground plant parts, whereas factors like external environmental conditions including climate, pathogen presence and human practices influence microbiota. These external environmental factors are physical factors including:  temperature, osmotic pressure, pH, and  oxygen  concentration. They determine the survival of the microbs within the microbiota. In nature, where many species coexist, fluctuating environmental conditions cause dramatic population shifts due to the varying growth rates of different microorganisms.  Every microbial species has a set of optimal conditions under which it flourishes.  However, because the conditions in natural environments fluctuate widely, microbes have adapted tolerance to a range of environmental conditions.  For example, many microbes have an optimum growth temperature of 30°C, but will still grow, albeit slower, at 4°C.  In the laboratory, where conditions can be controlled, it is possible to achieve optimal growth conditions for a given microorganism that is cultured for use. 

TESTING SOIL MICROBIAL ACTIVITY

Soil test can help understand better the level of microbial activity and type (bacterial or fungal) useful to improve soil health.
Some of the test used to determine microbial activities include numerous approaches like phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs), substrate-induced respiration, or quantitative PCR (qPCR), Chloroform fumigation–extraction, chloroform fumigation–incubation, arginine ammonification, ATP, microscopic method, plate culture , microBIOMETER and DNA analysis etc, all used to determine F:B ratios. Laboratory testing is also used. Each has its own drawbacks and advantages. These quantification techniques have been extensively used, but also compared. Despite differences, they have altogether showed good repeatability. However, there is a clear need to standardize methods like the DNA extraction procedure for qPCR.
The drawback of these methods is that many of the methods carry large and tedious procedures making them unsuitable as rapid estimates of microbial biomass. In addition, most of these techniques have not been applied to study microbial biomass dynamics in composting and vermicomposting processes, being only widely used fumigation–extraction, with some studies using ATP measurements and PFLAs profiles , although the use of molecular techniques is increasing.

1. THE SOLVITA CO2 BURST TEST: This test provides a cheap and easy way to assess microbial activity on-farm without the use of laboratory testing. Once sampled, the test takes 24 hours to complete and provides an indication of soil health based on the volume of carbon dioxide produced by soil microbes.

2. THE MICROBIOMETER TEST: This type of test is available for home testing. It takes just 20 minutes and provides an idea of both microbial biomass and the fungal to bacteria ration of a soil sample. This helps landholders better understand how their soil health is responding to land management practices and adopt management decision to suit the soil.

3. There are also a number of laboratory scale tests that can be undertaken to assess soil microbiology.
a. A phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) test measures microbial biomass and identifies missing microbes.
b. DNA SEQUENCING: This is gaining momentum as a way to understand the composition of a microbiome at a genetic level. While the testing itself is relatively cheap, interpreting the results requires the expertise of a soil scientist which makes the process more expensive. Future advances may automate next generation sequencing services and therefore make this a more realistic option for landholders.

4. PHOSPHOLIPID FATTY ACID ANALYSIS (PLFA)
PLFA method provides an easy to use and robust measure of changing soil microbial condition. The method provides data on both the quantity and composition of the soil microbial community- critical knowledge because the community is an important component of soil health.
The method is a widely used technique due to the sensitive, reproducible measurement of the dominant portions of the soil microbiota and the fact that PLFA does not require cultivation of the organisms.It is not cost effective and results in biased results due to the differing ease of culturing of some organisms. The main drawback of PLFA has been that the extraction time is very long and cumbersome

5. SUBSTRATE- INDUCED RESPIRATION TECHNIQUES
The substrate-induced respiration (SIR) asists in the measurement of microbial respiration of samples after amending them with an excess of a readily nutrient source, usually glucose, to trigger microbial activity. The microbial population in soil is activated by the addition of readily decomposable respiratory substrate.
The initial maximum respiratory response, which has to be optimized for every new kind of sample, is related with the current size of living microbial biomass.

6. MICROSCOPY TECHNIQUE
The Gold Standard for estimating individual fungal and bacterial biomass separately is microscopy. It calculates both fungal and bacterial biovolume separately.
Note that microBIOMETER detects the same range as microscopy.

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The escalating demand for livestock products in developing and developed countries coupled with steadily increasing temperatures is an unbearable situation, with costly infrastructural investments needed to overcome challenges of thermal environments and also to increase their productivity has become a serious concern all over the world. Annual losses of cattle products due to heat stress is about US$1·26 billion for dairy and beef cattle herds in the USA in the early 2000s. It has being projected that income losses of £40 million in the UK dairy herd might be experienced from year 2080 and above if proper measures are not taken talkless of other livestock.
Stress is a reflex reaction of animals in harsh environments and causes unfavorable consequences ranges from discomfort to death.
Heat stress in livestock occurs when the environment is too hot and humid, making it difficult for animals to cool down. It is one of the major impact of climate change on livestock raised in both intensive and extensive production systems.
When environmental conditions challenge the animal’s thermoregulatory mechanisms, heat stress arises. This means that animals become affected when there is an imbalance between metabolic heat production inside the animal body and its dissipation to the surroundings, results to heat stress (HS) under high air temperature and humid climates. It result from combinations of temperature, humidity, solar radiation, and wind speed beyond the ability of an animal to thermoregulate.
The effects of heat stress include reduced productivity, reduced animal welfare, reduced fertility, increased susceptibility to disease, and in extreme cases increased mortality, and affect all domesticated species.
At temperatures higher than an animal’s thermoneutral zone, heat stress can affect liveweight gain, milk yield, and fertility. For example, in cattle rearing, depending on species and breed, can experience thermal stress at temperatures higher than 20°C. Temperature increases of 1.5°C and above may exceed limits for normal thermoregulation of poultry (broiler and layer chickens), and pigs, and could result in persistent heat stress for these animals in a range of different environments. In Brazil, high ambient temperatures (29–35°C) reduced average daily weight gain in growing‐finishing pigs by nearly 10% and feed intake by nearly 14% compared with a thermoneutral environment (18–25°C).
Indigenous or local poultry are often assumed to be hardy and well adapted to stressful environments Compared to exotic breeds.
In the case of sheep and goats, the direct effects of higher temperatures on them may be less severe, though goats are better able to cope with multiple stressors than sheep.
At higher temperatures, animals reduce their feed intake by 3–5% per additional degree of temperature, reducing productivity.
Animal welfare may also be negatively affected by heat stress even in the absence of effects on productivity, at least in the short term. It can increase respiration and mortality, reduces fertility, modifies animal behaviour, and suppresses the immune and endocrine system, thereby increasing animal susceptibility to some diseases.
The ways a particular animal will respond to heat stress, and when it will result to production losses vary widely. This variation depend on factors such as species, breed, age, genetic potential, physiological status, nutritional status, animal size, and previous exposure, with high‐yielding individuals and breeds the most susceptible. For example, dairy cows are generally more susceptible than beef cattle, and temperate Bos taurus breeds tend to be more susceptible than tropically adapted Bos indicus cattle and their crosses . Within the dairy breeds, Holsteins are less heat tolerant than other breeds such as Jersey and Brown Swiss, in that they have a higher core temperature, are larger and thus have a lower skin surface to mass ratio, have thicker coats, and higher yield potential etc. Therefore, the effect of heat stress can result to changes that affect the economic performance of dairy and beef production systems.

CAUSES OR FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO HEAT STRESS IN ANIMALS
Heat stress in livestock do occur when environmental conditions make it difficult for animals to regulate their body temperature. This can happen when temperatures, humidity, solar radiation, and wind speed are too high.
Climate change can also be a major cause of heat stress in livestock.

a. RISING TEMPERATURES: Climate change is causing global temperatures to rise, which increases the frequency and intensity of heat waves. When the temperature is higher than the animal’s normal body temperature, heat stress will occur
b. MORE EXTREME HEAT WAVES: Heat waves are becoming more frequent and longer lasting.
c. DENSE STOCKING DENSITY: Overcrowding in barns can hinder heat dissipation. Thus, affect animals welbeing.
d. LACK OF SHADE AND VENTILATION: Inadequate access to shade and poor ventilation in barns exacerbates heat stress.
e. HIGH HUMIDITY: High relative humidity limits the ability of animals to cool down through evaporative cooling.
c. SLOW AIR MOVEMENT: When there is not enough air movement to cool the animal. The animals become heat stressed.
d. SOLAR RADIATION: When the animal is exposed to the sun, body temperature may rise.
ANIMALS AT RISK OF HEAT STRESS
Animals at high risk of heat stress include:
a. young animals
b. dark coloured animals
c. animals that have been sick or have a previous history of respiratory disease
Heat stress tolerances can also vary between and within a species, for example:
i. pigs become heat stressed at a lower temperature level and are very prone to sunburn.
ii. sheep that are newly shorn are at risk of heat stress and sunburn due to lack of insulation from heat provided by wool
iii. high producing dairy cows are more affected by extreme heat than lower producing cows
iv. lactating cattle are more susceptible than dry cows because of the additional metabolic heat generated during lactation
v. beef cattle with black hair suffer more from direct solar radiation than those with lighter hair, although those with pink skin are at risk of sunburn
vi. Holsteins are less tolerant than Jersey cows
British breeds of sheep and cattle are less tolerant than merino or tropical beef breeds
heavy cattle over 450kg are more susceptible than lighter ones.
Cattle, alpacas and llamas are more prone to heat stress than sheep and goats
These types of animals should be watched more closely for signs of heat stress during days of high temperature.

EFFECTS OF HEAT STRESS ON LIVESTOCK
The foremost reaction of animals under thermal weather is increase in respiration rate (RR), rectal temperature (RT) and heart rate (HR). It directly affect feed intake thereby reduces growth rate, milk yield, reproductive performance, and even death in extreme cases. Dairy breeds are typically more sensitive to HS than meat breeds, and higher producing animals are susceptible since they generates more metabolic heat. HS suppresses the immune and endocrine system thereby enhances susceptibility of an animal to various diseases. Hence, sustainable dairy farming remains a vast challenge in these changing climatic conditions globally.
Some of the effects of heat stress on livestock include;
-Reduced milk production
-Reduced fertility
-Increased disease susceptibility
-Increased mortality
-Reduced dry matter intake
-Increased lameness
-Shorter gestation periods
-Calves with lower birth weights

a. REDUCED PRODUCTIVITY: Heat stress can reduce liveweight gain, milk yield, and fertility.
b. COMPROMISED ANIMAL WELFARE: Heat stress can negatively affect animal welfare, even if it doesn’t affect productivity.
c. METABOLIC ALTERATIONS: Heat stress can cause metabolic alterations, oxidative stress, and immune suppression.
d. REDUCED MILK PRODUCTIVITY: Animals may reduce their feed intake, which can lead to lower milk yield and meat production. In the case of dairy animals, there is usually a significant decline in milk production as the animal prioritizes cooling mechanisms over milk synthesis.
e. REDUCED FERTILITY: Heat stress can affect fertility in both male and female animals. It can disrupt estrous cycles, leading to reduced fertility and increased days open in dairy cows.
f. INCREASED SUSCEPTIBILITY TO DISEASE: Heat stress can suppress the immune system, making animals more likely to get sick
g. INCREASED MORTALITY: In extreme cases, heat stress can lead to death
h. DECREASED FEED INTAKE:
Under heat stress, dairy animals consume less feed, impacting their overall energy intake and further reducing milk yield.
i. ALTERED MILK COMPOSITION:
Heat stress can change the composition of milk, affecting the levels of fat, protein, and lactose.
j. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES:
Increased body temperature, rapid respiration rate, and changes in blood parameters are common physiological responses to heat stress.
k. BEHAVIORAL CHANGES:
Dairy animals under heat stress may exhibit altered behavior like reduced lying time, increased panting, and less activity.

SIGNS OF HEAT STRESS IN LIVESTOCK
There are many signs of heat stress that livestock farmers should look for in their animals. Some general signs include:
-Panting
-Increased respiration rate
-Increased water intake
-Loss of appetite
-Listlessness or lethargy
-Increased salivation
-In severe cases, may become unconscious, Collapse or seizure may occur
-Excessive panting
-Drooling
-Bright red gums
-Vomiting or diarrhea
-Weakness, dazed expression, or incoherent behavior

1. PANTING: Panting is a physiological response and a sign of heat stress which animals and humans use to cool down by rapidly breathing. It increases the evaporation of moisture from the mouth and respiratory tract, thereby releasing heat from the body. When the environment is hot, increased panting is triggered to compensate for the rising internal temperature.

2. INCREASED RESPIRATION RATE: An increased respiration rate is a sign of heat stress. Heat stress activate the body’s thermoregulatory system, triggering increased breathing to facilitate heat loss through evaporation from the lungs. When the body is overheated, it attempts to cool itself down by panting, which increases the rate of breathing, allowing for more evaporation of moisture from the lungs and thus releasing heat from the body; essentially, faster breathing helps to dissipate excess heat.

3. INCREASED WATER INTAKE: Heat stress can have a significant effect on production and reproduction so it is important that shelter and a plentiful amount of cool water are supplied.
In times of excessive heat, livestock may crowd around water sources and place greater demand on water supplies. Birds like fowls in battery cages can be supplied cold water to cool their body system.
HEAT can also affect feeding and drinking troughs and other farm equipments. During cool months, routine farm maintenance should be done to check all troughs and water lines, so as to ensure they do not break down in the hotter months. For example, service pumps and replace seals if necessary. Check floats on troughs.
Water lines should be buried at least 15cm (6 inches) deep to prevent them heating up the water prior to entering the water point
It is important to note that shelter and water should be close together, care should be taken with livestock so that this does not result in animals camping around the water source, causing overcrowding and preventing all animals from accessing water. Ensure enough shelter and trough are provided so that all stock have access to water. Placement of troughs should also be carefully considered to prevent animals crowding between fences and the trough.

4. LOSS OF APPETITE: Heat stress causes loss of appetite primarily because the body prioritizes cooling itself down over digestion, meaning that eating generates additional heat which the body tries to avoid when already overheated. This is a thermoregulation mechanism where the body naturally reduces food intake in hot environments to prevent further heat production through digestion. Also, the production of hunger hormones are affected. Thus, leading to potential decreased in feeling of hunger. 

5. DEHYDRATION: Excessive sweating during heat stress can lead to dehydration, which can also contribute to a loss of appetite. 

6. LISTLESS OR LETHARGY: When temperature is high, the body has to work hard to keep cool. The body becomes dehydration and coupled with poor sleep result in feeling of tiredness. Fatigue is also a sign of tiredness. Thus need for the animal to rehydrate and rest.

7. INCREASED SALIVATION: Heat stress causes increased salivation in livestock. Salivation is a physiological response used primarily as a cooling mechanism, where the animal produces more saliva to facilitate open-mouth breathing (panting), which helps evaporate moisture from the tongue and oral cavity, thus lowering their body temperature.  Essentially, the increased saliva acts as a cooling agent when evaporated through panting. 

8. IN SEVERE CASES MAY BECOME UNCONSCIOUS: Heat stress in livestock can lead to dizziness, nausea and weakness. It also result in brain dysfunction with less blood flow to the brain. Thus resulting in lose of conciousness.

SIGNS OF HEAT STRESS IN SPECIFIC TYPES OF ANIMALS

1. HORSES:
Horses should not be exercised during hot weather but rather early morning and late afternoon/evening when it is coolest. Horses that are heat stressed may show signs of excessive sweating and reduced feed intake. Therefore, electrolytes can be added to their feed to replace essential salts lost through sweating.
Heat stressed horses can be cooled down by hosing with cool water, starting from the feet and moving up slowly, sponging with water or by placing wet towels over them.
Excess water must be scraped off afterwards unless there is a good breeze, as water in the coat on a hot, humid, still day will act as an insulator and it will quickly warm up again.

2. CATTLE:
Cattle that are heat stressed will show increased respiration rates as they try to cool themselves down. If cows are taking more than 60 breaths per minute, then, there is need to take action.
Cattles need to be provided plenty of shade as this can reduce the amount of solar radiation received by the cow by up to 50%.
Paddock rotation can be altered so that the cattle are in paddocks that are close to the dairy to reduce the distance they have to walk in extreme heat.
Sprinklers and shade can also be used in holding yards. To be effective, the sprinklers must wet the cows to the skin. Air flow is also important. Sprinklers have been found to improve milk production, reduce fly irritation and make for more contented cows in the shed with better milk let down.
Cattle should be allowed to drink plenty of water on the way to and from the dairy pen. Cows can also cool themselves by standing in cold water which allows them to disperse some of their heat load so access to a dam or other source of cool water can be useful in reducing heat stress.

3. PIG:
Pig in pen are usually provided drinking water out of a large bucket.
Pigs are highly susceptible to heat stress and sunburn, and should not be exposed to long periods of direct sunlight or extremes of temperature. Providing outdoor pigs with sufficient water and mud hole areas is extremely important when temperatures are above 25°C.
Pigs cannot effectively sweat because they have very few functional sweat glands relative to their body size, meaning sweating is not a primary way for them to cool down. Instead, they rely on activities like wallowing in mud or water to regulate their body temperature.
They also try to cool themselves by:
-increasing water intake
-lying on a cool surface
-panting
-reducing feed intake
-Transporting pigs in the heat is not adviceable, it is best to avoid transporting pigs in hot or humid conditions.
If transport is unavoidable, pigs should be transported in a covered and well ventilated trailer to avoid sunburn. Loading density should be reduced by at least 10% if the ambient temperature rises above 25°C to allow all pigs to be able to lie down. Pigs should be unloaded immediately on arrival at destination unless facilities exist for vehicles to park in a roofed area with spray facilities.
All procedures involving pigs including holding and selling should be conducted under a roofed area.

4. FOWLS:
In intensively housed fowl, high temperatures causes distress. To manage this distress, farmers uses foggers, roof sprinklers, fans, cold drinks, electrolyte drugs, glucose etc or other systems to control heat buildup within the poultry housing. Foggers are less effective if humidity reaches above 80% and temperature rises above 30°C. In these conditions mechanical ventilation must be provided for the fowls.
Birds can also be protected from overheating by providing enough space and not overcrowding the birds. This will facilitate heat loss, and temperature control systems must be in place to prevent ambient temperatures at bird level exceeding 33°C.
The construction and positioning of nest boxes should be such that they avoid becoming heat traps.

5. DOGS:
There are different types of dogs used for different purposes. Some are pets, some for security, some for farm work etc.
Cattle dog are used to watch over cattles on farm. They
stand in sunshine watching over the grazing cattle. This work dogs should only be allowed to carry out their duties during the cool times of the day, and they must have regular breaks with access to water and shade. Herders should carry water with them at all times and offer small amounts to their work dogs often.
If a dog is suffering from heat stress immediately stop it’s work, find the nearest water trough and put it in, or wet it down with a hose. Offer it cool water and place it in the shade and a breeze if possible. Seek veterinary assistance if it does not respond quickly.
Ensure the working dogs have access to shade and a source of clear fresh water at all times when they are kennelled or resting.
Metal kennels should be placed under the shade. Ice cubes can be put in the dog’s water bowl to keep it cool.
Dogs should not be left tied up on the back of a ute in the sun. On days over 28°C, dogs must have a layer of insulating material between them and the metal tray. Dogs have the following signs of heat stress:

-dry nose (caused by dehydration)

-weakness

-muscle tremors

-collapse

-Cats, dogs and other pets

Always provide plenty of cool, clean water and shade for the animal. When away from home, carry a thermos filled with fresh, cool water. Pet dogs should be left at home as much as possible. They will be much more comfortable in a cool home than riding in a hot car. If a pet must be taken along for the ride, they should not be left alone in a parked vehicle. Even with the windows open, a parked car can quickly become a furnace. On days with temperature over 28°C, dog must not be left, or any other animal, in a vehicle unattended to for more than 10 minutes.

Do not force animal to exercise in hot, humid weather. Exercise pets in the cool of the early morning or evening. In extremely hot weather, do not leave dogs standing on the street, and keep walks to a minimum. Because a dog is much closer to the hot asphalt, its body can heat up quickly, and its paws can sustain burns or injuries.

Animals can get sunburned too. Protect hairless and light-coated dogs and white cats with sunscreen when the animal will be outside in the sun for an extended period of time. Put sunscreen or zinc on exposed areas of pink skin. Animals with long coats can be clipped to increase comfort in hot weather.

Smaller animals
Small animals such as rabbits and guinea pigs can become heat stressed when temperatures increase over 21°C so it is important that their enclosures are in the shade and that they have plenty of clean cool water.
Remember, the most important things that can be done to animals in hot weather is to provide them with rest and shade in the hottest parts of the day, and plenty of clean cool water

CLIMATE CHANGE AND HEAT STRESS
Sustainability in livestock production system is largely affected by climate change.
Climate change is one of the major threats for survival of various species, ecosystems and the sustainability of livestock production systems across the world, especially in tropical and temperate countries. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reported that temperature of the earth has been increased by 0.2°C per decade and also predicted that the global average surface temperature would be increased to 1.4-5.8°C by 2100. It was also indicated that mainly developing countries tend to be more vulnerable to extreme climatic events as they largely depend on climate sensitive sectors like agriculture and forestry. Recently, Silanikove and Koluman also forecasted the severity of heat stress (HS) issue as an increasing problem in near future because of global warming progression.
The thermoneutral zone (TNZ)[ the range of temperatures at which the body can maintain its core temperature without changing its metabolic rate] of dairy animals ranges from 16°C to 25°C, within which they maintained a physiological body temperature of 38.4-39.1°C. However, air temperatures above 20-25°C in temperate climate and 25-37°C in a tropical climate like in India and Africa enhance heat gain beyond that lost from the body and induces HS. As a results, body surface temperature, respiration rate (RR), heart rate and rectal temperature (RT) increases which in turn affects feed intake, production and reproductive efficiency of animals.
Homeotherms animals ( animals that maintain a stable internal body temperature, regardless of the temperature around them) can resist HS up to some extents depending on species, breed and productivity. Among dairy animals, goats are the most adapted species to imposed HS in terms of production, reproduction and also to disease resistance. Studies had stipulated that native breeds survive and perform better to heat stress as compared to exotic breeds and their crosses under tropical environmental conditions.
Due to the fact that the native breeds have evolved over generations to adapt to the local climate, they have developed traits like lighter hair coats, efficient sweating mechanisms, and smaller body sizes that help them dissipate heat more effectively in hot environments. Exotic breeds in comparison lack these adaptations and struggle to cope with extreme temperatures. 

TRAITS THAT MAKE NATIVE BREEDS TO BE MORE HEAT TOLERANT COMPARED TO EXOTIC BREEDS
a. GENETIC ADAPTATION : From researches and breeding, native breeds have being descovered to develop genetic traits that enable them to thrive in hot climates. Such traits include; higher sweat gland density, better blood circulation to the skin, and a lower metabolic rate which generates less heat. While exotic breeds, due to their genetic makeup developed in cooler climates, often struggle to regulate body temperature in hot environments, leading to reduced productivity and potential health issues. 
b. COAT COLOUR AND HAIR TYPE: Many native breeds have lighter coloured coats or sparse hair, which helps reflect sunlight and reduce heat absorption compared to the thicker, darker coats of exotic breeds. 
c. BODY SIZE: Native breeds possess smaller body size which allows for better heat dissipation as they have a larger surface area relative to their volume. While Larger body size and heavier muscle mass exotic breeds can generate more metabolic heat, making it harder to cool down. 
d. BEHAVIORAL ADAPTATIONS:
Native animals may also exhibit behavioral adaptations to heat stress, such as seeking shade during the hottest part of the day or altering grazing patterns to cooler times etc. 

IMPACT OF HEAT STRESS (HS) ON LIVESTOCK PERFORMANCE, PRODUCTIVITY AND HEALTH

EFFECTS OF HS ON HEALTH OF DAIRY ANIMALS
HS affects health of dairy animals by imposing direct or indirect effects in normal physiology, metabolism, hormonal, and immunity system. It significantly impact dairy animals by causing a decrease in milk production, reduced feed intake especially dry matter intake, alter milk composition, impaired reproductive performance, potential health complications, and pregnancy rates. Heat stress also leads to increased lameness, disease incidence, days open and death rates. All these are primarily due to the inability to effectively dissipate excess body heat in high temperature environments and can lead to significant economic losses for dairy farmers.

EFFECT OF HEAT STRESS ON FEED INTAKE AND RUMEN PHYSIOLOGY OF LIVESTOCK
Increase in environmental temperature has a direct negative effect on appetite center of the hypothalamus, therefore decrease feed intake. Feed intake begins to decline at air temperatures of 25-26°C in lactating cows and reduces more rapidly above 30°C in temperate climatic condition and at 40°C it may decline by as much as 40%. While in dairy goats, a decrease of about 22-35% may occur and 8-10% in buffalo heifers. Reducing feed intake is a way to decrease heat production in warm environments. Feeding is one of the ways that increases heat in livestock. It is an important source of heat production in ruminants. Therefore, this can cause a stage of negative energy balance (NEB), which consequently result in body weight loss and reduced body conditioning.
In ruminant animals, an
increase in environmental temperature will alters the physiological mechanisms of the rumen which negatively affects the ruminant with increased risk of metabolic disorders and health problems. Researches had reported that under HS condition, ruminants produce less acetate whereas propionate and butyrate production increased as the rumen function is altered. Thus making the animal to consumed less roughages, changes rumen microbial population and pH from 5.82 to 6.03, decrease rumen motility and rumination. These inturn affects the animals health by lowering saliva production, variation in digestion patterns and decrease dry matter intake (DMI). Moreover, HS also results into hypofunction of the thyroid gland and affects the metabolism patterns of the animal.

IMPACT OF HEAT STRESS ON ACID-BASE BALANCE IN LIVESTOCK STOMACH
Animal under HS has increased respiration rate (RR) and sweating. These are ways through which body fluid is lost, resulting in uncontrolled dehydration and blood homeostasis. As RR increases, expiration of CO2 through the lungs also increases. This results to respiratory alkalosis, as blood carbonic acid concentration decreases, thus increasing the blood pH level. Therefore, animals will need more fluid to compensate for the lost ones. To increase the carbonic acid in the blood, bicarbonate must be excreted through urine to maintain the carbonic acid to bicarbonate ratio.
Chronic hyperthermia also causes severe or prolonged inappetence which further aggravates the increased supply of total carbonic acid in the rumen and decrease ruminal pH thereby, resulting into subclinical and acute rumen acidosis.

IMPACT OF HEAT STRESS ON ANIMAL IMMUNE SYSTEM

The immune system is the major body defense systems to protect against infection and make animals cope with environmental stressors. HS causes damage of the immune system in livestock and poultry, resulting in immune suppression, reduced disease resistance, and easy infection by various pathogens. This leads to increased morbidity and mortality of animals.
The immune system can be divided into non-specific and specific immunity. Specific immunity is composed of humoral and cellular immunity. Actually, many types of immune cells of the immune system play a role in both humoral and cellular immunity. The primary indicators of immunity or immune cells response include white blood cells (WBCs), red blood cells (RBCs), hemoglobin (Hb), packed cell volume (PCV), glucose and protein concentration in blood. All can be altered during thermal stress. WBC (leukocytes) count increase by 21-26% and RBC count decrease by 12-20% in thermally stressed cattle due to thyromolymphatic involution or destruction of erythrocytes.
Reseach had reported that there is high significant variation of Hb, PCV, plasma glucose, total protein and albumin when exposed to different temperature variation in malpura ewes. This higher PCV value was an adaptive mechanism to provide water necessary for evaporative cooling process.
However, in contrast to these findings, reduction of Hb and PCV levels were observed as a results of RBC lysis either by increased attack of free radicals on its membrane or inadequate nutrient availability for Hb synthesis as the animal consumes less feed or decreases voluntary intake upon HS.
In heat stressed cattles, it has being discovered that blood glucose significantly decreased in dairy cows in accordance to greater blood insulin activity. Release of plasma cortisol increases in stressed animals which causes down-regulation or suppression of L-selectin expression on the neutrophils surface.
Some clinical illlnesses had also been observed in animals under high air temperature. Lameness increases with an increase in air temperature, due to increase in standing time. Furthermore, lameness causes thin soles, white line disease, ulcers, and sole punctures and increases the likelihood for early culling from the herd.
Climate change may bring about substantial shifts in disease distribution and outbreaks. Change in rainfall and temperature regimes may affect both the distribution and the abundance of disease-causing vectors. The increase in THI has being discovered to result in increased incidence of mastitis in cows. the high incidence of mastitis in dairy cows could be due to high temperatures facilitating survival and multiplication of pathogens carrier fly population associated with hot-humid conditions. Excess heat load in extreme cases not only compromises animal welfare but also results into death of the animals.

EFFECT OF HS ON PRODUCTION AND REPRODUCTION PERFORMANCE OF DAIRY ANIMALS

MILK PRODUCTION AND COMPOSITION
HS adversely affects milk production and its composition in dairy animals, especially animals of high genetic merit.
HEAT stress impact on milk production depends on the duration and intensity of exposure to high temperatures and relative humidity. Dairy cattle that produce more milk are more sensitive to heat stress. This is because higher milk production levels increase the amount of metabolic heat that the cow produces. Also, heat stress do reduce the amount of feed consumed by animals, therefore reducing milk production. These has being supported by various researches estimating that effective environmental heat loads above 35°C activate the stress response systems in lactating dairy cows. In response, dairy cows reduce feed intake which is directly associated with NEB, which largely is responsible for the decline in milk synthesis.
HS during the dry period (i.e., last 2 months of gestation) reduced mammary cell proliferation and so, decreases milk yield in the following lactation. Moreover, HS during the dry period negatively affects the function of the immune cell in dairy cows facing calving and also extended to the following lactation .
As heat stress limits milk production, it also has negative impact on cow’s health, reproduction, and general well-being.
Temperature-humidity index (THI) is a common way to measure heat stress in dairy cows. THI is calculated using air temperature and relative humidity.
Dairy cows that are exposed to high temperatures and humidity may have inadequate body temperature regulation, which can lead to heat stress.
The earliest sign of heat stress in dairy cows is an increased breathing rate. When the rectal temperature (RT) >39.0°C and respiration rate (RR) >60/min in cows, this indicated that the animal is undergoing HS, thus affect milk yield and fertility.
HEAT stress also has severe effect on stages of lactation. Animals in their mid-lactation stage are mostly heat sensitive compared to early and late lactating counterparts. For example, the average milk production in Holstein-Friesian during early lactation period (first 60 days of lactation) was discovered to be higher in spring than in summer seasons. Similarly, early lactating dairy goats under HS produce greater milk yield losses (9%) compared to late lactating animals (3%). In addition, greater reductions in milk fat at early lactation (12%) has being discovered compared to their late lactation (1%).
Hot and humid environment not only affects milk yield but also affects milk quality. Researches had reported that milk fat, solids-not-fat (SNF) and milk protein percentage decreased by 39.7, 18.9 and 16.9%, respectively under heat stress condition.

EFFECTS OF HEAT STRESS ON REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE

The reproductive performance of livestock and poultry can seriously be affected by heat stress. Three mechanisms are involved for the decrease of reproductive efficiency in animals under Heat Stress. Firstly, the decrease in food intake, digestion, and absorption caused by HS leads to a decrease in energy intake or imbalance of nutrition, consequently affecting spermatogenesis, and ovarian and fetal development. Secondly, HS induces an imbalance of secretion of hormones which are involved in ovulation. It affects the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
When the air temperature and humidity are high, cellular functions become affected by direct alteration and impairment of various tissues or organs of the reproductive system in both the sexes of the animal.
Heat stress significantly impacts animal reproductive performance by disrupting various aspects of the reproductive cycle, including oocyte quality, sperm motility, embryo development, and hormone regulation, leading to decreased fertility rates, reduced conception rates, and lower pregnancy success in both male and female animals. Essentially, high temperatures can negatively affect the production of viable offspring by impairing gamete development and early embryonic stages. 

EFFECTS ON FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE
(Estrous period and follicular growth)
Heat stress is a significant factor that affect female animal reproductive performance. It causes a detrimental effects of elevating the animal’s body temperature on ovarian function and early embryo development. It disrupt the various aspects of the estrous cycle, including reduced estrus expression, impaired follicular development, decreased oocyte quality, lower conception rates, and increased embryonic mortality. This ultimately leads to lower fertility and reduced reproductive efficiency.
Also on estrus, HS reduces the duration and intensity of estrus. It increases incidence of anestrous and silent heat in farm animals. These reduced factors makes it harder to detect the optimal time for mating, leading to missed breeding opportunities. 
As the heat stress increases, ACTH and cortisol secretion also increases, thus, blocking the estradiol-induced sexual behavior in the animal.
HEAT stress also impact the development of follicles in female animals. In a research, the study reveals that at temperature above 40°C, development of follicles do suffer damage and become non-viable. It has also being reported that when female goats are exposed to temperature of 36.8°C and 70% relative humidity for 48 h, follicular growth to ovulation becomes suppressed. This is also accompanied by decreased LH receptor level and follicular estradiol synthesis activity.
Granulosa cells in the ovary are responsible for producing estradiol, which function in follicular development, estrous cycles, and ultimately, increase fertility in females. Heat stress significantly reduces estradiol secretion, primarily by impairing the function of granulosa cells, therefore reducing estradiol secreation. This decreases follicular development, disrupted estrous cycles, reduce gonadotropin surge, ovulation, transport of gametes and ultimately, reduced fertility in females exposed to high temperatures. 
A temperature rise of more than 2°C in unabated buffaloes may cause negative impacts due to low or desynchronized endocrine activities particularly pineal-hypothalamo-hypophyseal-gonadal axis altering respective hormone functions. In addition, research has also reported that low estradiol level on the day of estrus during summer period may be the likely factor for poor expression of heat in Indian buffaloes.

FERTILITY
Heat stress is one of the factors that significantly reduce livestock fertility by impairing various reproductive processes in both males and females animals, including decreased ovulation rate, reduced sperm quality, disrupted embryonic development, and altered hormone levels, ultimately leading to lower conception rates and decreased reproductive efficiency. It reduces oocyte development by affecting its growth and maturation. It increases circulating prolactin level in animal’s resulting to acyclicity and infertility. Moreover, 80% of estrus may be unnoticeable during summer in temperate regions which further reduces fertility.
In female animals,
heat stress result in reduced estrus detection, lessening the intensity and duration of estrus, making it harder to identify the optimal time for insemination. A period of high-temperature do results in increase secretion of endometrial PGF-2α, thereby threatening pregnancy maintenance leads to infertility. Also, it disrupt the normal development of follicles in the ovary, impacting oocyte quality. In cattle for example. Heat stress brings about increase in plasma follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) surge and inhibin concentrations decrease. This leads to variation in follicular dynamics and depression of follicular dominance that could be associated with low fertility in cattle during the summer and autumn. However, FSH secretion is elevated under HS condition probably due to reduced inhibition of negative feedback from smaller follicles which ultimately affect the reproductive efficiency of dairy animals
Several researches has also proven the negative effect of heat stress on rate of conception.
Oocytes of cows exposed to thermal stress do lose their competence for fertilization and development to the blastocyst stage.
Therefore, in the temperate region, it has being discovered that conception rates in dairy cow had dropped from about 40% to 60% during the cooler months to 10-20% or lower in summer, depending on the severity of thermal stress. A study had revealed that about 20-27% drop in conception rates or decrease in 90-day non-return rate to the first service in lactating dairy cows were recorded in summer. Moreover, during severe HS, only 10-20% of inseminations resulted in normal pregnancies during another study.

EMBRYONIC GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Heat stress negatively affect early embryonic development, increasing the risk of embryo loss and disrupt the normal secretion of reproductive hormones like estrogen and progesterone, leading to irregular cycles.
High temperatures during early embryonic development can increase the rate of embryo death, further reducing pregnancy rates. This occurs when HS interfers with protein synthesis, oxidative cell damage, reducing interferon-tau production for signaling pregnancy recognition and expression of stress-related genes associated with apoptosis. Low progesterone secretion limits endometrial function and embryo development. When lactating cows are exposed to HS on the 1st day after estrus, the embryos that developed to form the blastocyst stage becomes reduced on the day 8th after estrus. Further, exposure of post-implantation embryos (early organogenesis) and fetus to HS also leads to various teratologies. Most effects of HS in the embryo are most evident in early stages of its development. However, embryos subjected to high temperatures in vitro or in vivo until day 7 of development (blastocyst) showed lower pregnancy rates at day 30 and higher rates of embryonic loss on day 42 of gestation and lactation yield as well as postpartum ovarian activity.

EFFECTS ON MALE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE
Heat stress can significantly reduce sperm motility, morphology, and viability, impacting fertilization potential. It can lower male sexual desire and also affect mating behavior.
Bull testes must be 2-6°C cooler than core body temperature for fertile sperm to be produced. Therefore, increased testicular temperature results from thermal stress may cause changes in seminal and biochemical parameters leading to infertility problems in bulls. Several researches had proven that seasonal difference in heat effect can affect semen characteristics. Researches has reported that younger bulls are more sensitive to elevated air temperatures during the summer seasons. Other studies has reported that HS do affect the performance of spermatozoa. It highly reduces fertilization rate in comparison to non-HS or normal control spermatozoa. It significantly lowers conception as well as fertility rates per insemination of male and subsequently reduces male’s fitness.

EFFECT OF HS ON ANIMAL ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system is mainly composed of endocrine organs (such as pituitary, thyroid, thymus, and adrenal gland) and endocrine tissues (islets, luteal cells, etc.) that exist in other organs and tissues. Endocrine system regulates a variety of physiological activities through secretion of hormones. The regulation of hormones is mainly controlled by the feedback regulation and the central nervous system. The normal physiologic state of the body requires maintenance.

MANAGEMENT AND PREVENTION OF HEAT STRESS IN LIVESTOCK AND ON THE FARM

Extreme heat causes significant stress for all animals. It is the responsibility of owners or people in charge of animals to be well prepared for heat events to ensure the welfare of their animals is maintained.
Some of the significant impacts of heat stress is on production and animal welfare, by making some minor management changes and taking a little extra care of the animals during periods of extreme hot weather, the effects of heat stress can be substantially reduced. Some of the management practices include: forward planning of farm infrastructure to provide shaded areas with good ventilation to maximise heat loss, checked animals regularly throughout the day for signs of heat stress, along with water points to ensure animals have access to ample cool water. Some of the management practices include;

1. PROVIDE PLENTY WATER TO DRINK;
The provision of plentiful clean, cool water and shade is essential in managing heat stress. Plenty of cool clean water should be offered but they should be encouraged to drink small amounts often.
Water troughs or containers should be large enough and designed in such a way that all animals have easy access. The number of watering points and water flow should be increased if a large number of animals are kept together.
Troughs or containers should be firmly fixed so they cannot overturn. They should be kept clean and should be designed and maintained to prevent injuries. Large concrete troughs help keep drinking water cool.
The location of water should be familiar to animals in the days before extreme heat occurs. Animals should not have to walk too far for water. If putting livestock into a new paddock, especially where pasture is high, ensure they are familiarised with watering points as the height of pasture may prevent them from seeing the water sites (especially young or small stock).

2. TYPES OF SHELTER TO PROTECT FROM HEAT
Animals need to be provided with shelter during extended periods of extreme temperatures. Shelter is especially important for very young or old animals and animals that are in poor condition or sick.
The best type of shelter during extreme heat protects the animals from the sun and allows for the cooling effect of wind.
Also, Holding and processing areas for livestock should have shaded areas available. Use of water sprinklers or misters can be useful to cool some species such as pigs and cattle.

3. RISK OF SMOTHERING
If insufficient shelter is provided for large groups of livestock there is the risk of animals crowding together under shelter resulting in smothering. It is important that shelter is available to all animals at the same time. It is preferable that shelter includes sufficient room for all animals to be able to lie down, as this assists with cooling.
It may be necessary to divide the number of animals into smaller groups. Group mentality may mean that even when animals have access to several smaller areas of shelter they will tend to camp together crowding under one source and around water.

4. OUTDOOR POULTRY HOUSES
Outdoor poultry houses (for example free range set ups or backyards) should be positioned in an area that is shaded from the sun and has good airflow. The east and west walls can be insulated. Wide overhangs at the eaves and solid end walls can also be used. In addition, an angled roof will reflect more heat at the hottest time of the day if the face of the slope is not directly facing the sun. The construction and positioning of nest boxes should be such that they avoid becoming heat traps.

5. REDUCE ANIMAL HANDLING: Avoid unnecessary handling, yarding, or transport during hot weather. Rather, use low-stress handling techniques
It is recommended not to handle animals in extreme heat unless absolutely necessary. If necessary, the handling should be done as early or late in the day as possible when temperatures are lower. For example, newly hatched chicks and other newly born animals should be transported early in the morning or late evening to reduce stress.
Also, research has shown that movement or handling of cattle during hot weather can increase their body temperature by 0.5 to 3.5° C. Increased body temperature or heat stress will cause production losses in livestock and impact on their ability to maintain normal function.
Moving animals during cooler hours can decrease the impact of high temperatures on production performance. For example, a delay in milking by an hour or more in the evenings can result in an increase in production of up to 1.5 litres/day/cow.

6. TRANSPORTING ANIMALS DURING THE HEAT
Transport of animals should be planned, especially in extreme climatic so as to avoid compromising the animals’ welfare.
If transport is absolutely necessary, the journey should be planned so as to minimise the effects of hot weather on the animals.
Transportation routes should be along places with shades and water availability (such as rest stops). Animals should only be transported during the cooler hours of the day.
If it is necessary to stop, vehicle should be packed under the shade and at right angles to the wind direction to improve wind flow between animals during hot weather. Duration of stops should be kept to a minimum to avoid the build-up of heat while the vehicle is stationary.
Stocking densities should be reduced to 85% of capacity to ensure good air flow between animals, and drivers should have contingency plans in place for the occurrence of adverse weather events

7. PROVIDE SHADE: Provide shade to keep animals cool by constructing shaded areas outdoors and using shade cloths in barns.
But when animals are faced with heat stress, move them to the shade immediately, preferably somewhere with a breeze. If animals are too stressed to move, pick them up and move them or provide shade where they are.

8. INCREASE VENTILATION: Utilize fans and natural ventilation systems to improve air circulation in the pen house. But when heat stressed, increase air movement around them using fans, ventilation, or wind movement.

9. COOLING SYSTEMS: Implement sprinklers or misting systems to provide evaporative cooling. When heat stressed, spray them with cool water, especially on the legs and feet, or stand them in water. Use sprinklers or hoses for cattle, pigs and horses.
In addition, when animals are heat stressed, Lay wet towels over them. Dogs and cats can be placed in buckets/troughs of cool water. Poultry should not be wet down unless there is a breeze to aid the cooling process.

10. ADJUST FEEDING TIMES: Feed animals during cooler parts of the day.

11. DIETARY ADJUSTMENTS: Modify feed rations to include higher levels of water and electrolytes.

12. GENETIC SELECTION: Climate-smart breeds can be bred which are thermotolerance. Cattle and other ruminants with shorter hair, hair of greater diameter and lighter coat colour are more adapted to hot environments than those with longer hair coats and darker colours. Breeders should breed animals with traits that enhance heat tolerance.

13. PLAN ROAMING PERIODS: Work animals in the early hours of the morning

14. FEEDING:
Reduced food intake is an adaptive protection mechanism for managing heat stressed animals. In pigs for example, when the ambient temperature is higher than the optimum temperature, the feed intake decreases significantly. The appetite control center of animals is located in the hypothalamus. High environmental temperature activates the capsaicin receptor 1 (TRPV1) like receptor in the Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons of the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus, and the expression result in loss of appetite in the animal.
Feed digestion causes heat production which contribute to the animals heat load. Provide animals with high quality feed to maintain nutrient intake without excessive heat production, and feed out in early morning or evening when temperatures are lower.Also, consider feeding animals supplements to help support their immune system

15. REGULAR SUPPLY OF WATER: Provide clean water for drinking on regular basis. Also, cold water can be provided for drinking.

16. VITAMIN AND MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS: HS causes oxidative damage which could be minimized through supplementation of vitamins C, E and A and also mineral such as zinc. Vitamin E acts as an inhibitor – “chain blocker”- of lipid peroxidation and ascorbic acid prevents lipid peroxidation due to peroxyl radicals. It also recycles vitamin E, vitamin C and zinc are known to scavenge ROS during oxidative stress. Further, vitamin C assist in the absorption of folic acid by reducing it to tetrahydrofolate, the latter again acts as an antioxidant. Use of vitamin C along with electrolyte supplementation was found to relieve the animals of oxidative stress and boosts cell-mediated immunity in buffaloes .

17. MODIFY ANIMAL HOUSING: Use heat extractors, fans, water sprinklers, and cool drinking water.

18. MATCH BREEDS TO PRODUCTION SYSTEMS: Match adapted ruminant breeds to appropriate production systems.

19. STOCKING DENSITY: Decrease stocking rates to allow animals room to lie down.

20. If the animal shows no sign of improvement contact your local vet for assistance.

In conclusion, high temperature has detrimental effect on animal health. Therefore, it is important for all animal owners to care for their animals and emback on proper heat stress management practices to keep their animals live, in good health and make them happy.

The post HEAT STRESS IN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION appeared first on Supreme Light.

Coconut (cocos nucifera) is one of the world most useful and important perennial plants. A coconut fruit is made up of an outer exocarp, a thick fibrous fruit coat known as husk, underneath is the hard protective endocarp or shell, the edible endosperm and the milk.
Everything in between the shell and the outer coating or exocarp of the coconut seed is considered coco coir.
Coco coir, also known as coconut fiber, is a natural, renewable material derived from the husks of coconuts. The fibres are extracted from the outer husk of coconut, which are fibrous material found between the hard, internal shell and the outer coat of the coconut.

The coconut coir was initially considered a waste byproduct of coconut farming. In the past, coconuts were only grown for their edible interior pulp and the use of the husk for fire making. However, people came to realize the husks on the outside of coconuts are also quite useful.
Soil, a grow media was then the only medium on which people recognize for growing crops. Unfortunately, the imperfection of soils, a reason why farmers add soil amendments to improve their soils and make it a growing place for plants, still does not make soil a media for soilless farming. As new technology was developed such as soilless farming coco coir came to being as a new media for growing crops. Today, growing media such as coco coir are used in place of soil and peat moss. This substrate gives plants a supportive medium within which to grow and expand their roots. In their rawest form, soilless substrates like coconut coir do not contain any nutrients, so they are considered “inert.” However, coco coir is sometimes mixed with amendments like bat guano and other types of fertilizers to make blends and increase the nutrient status of the coir.
In Hydroponic farming, growers are drawn to raw, inert coco coir because it gives them precision control over their watering schedules.
To be successful in hydro growing, the growers must create nutrient mixes within very specific ranges of pH, PPM, and EC. To do so, they must use inert substrates which do not cause fluctuations in pH reading.
Coconut coir has a pH reading of 7, therefore, considered “ neutral.” As such, using raw coco coir as a hydroponic substrate will not influence the pH of irrigation water. For this reason, coco coir is the ideal substrate to use for hydroponics farming.

WORLD PRODUCERS OF COCONUT COIR
Major producers of Coir in the world as at year 2020 include [Country Weight (tonnes)]:
India -586,686, Vietnam- 390,541, Sri Lanka -161,791,
Thailand- 64,098, Ghana- 39,548, and all others – 33,960.
Total world coir fibre production is 1,276,624 tonnes (1,256,462 long tons; 1,407,237 short tons), with India( mainly in the coastal region of Kerala State), producing 60% of the total world supply of white coir fibre. Sri Lanka produces 36% of the total brown fibre output. Over 50% of the coir fibre produced annually throughout the world is consumed in the countries of origin, mainly India. Together, India and Sri Lanka produced 59% of the coir produced in 2020. Sri Lanka remains the world’s largest exporter of coir fibre and coir fibre based products.

HISTORY OF COCONUT COIR

Sennit, a type of  cordage  made by plaiting strands of dried fibre or grass can be used ornamentally in crafts, like a kind of macramé, or to make straw hats. Sennit is an important material in the cultures of Oceania, where it is used in traditional architecture, boat building, fishing and as an ornamentation. It is made from plaited coconut fibre on a traditional house in Fiji
The name coir comes from கயிறு (kayiru), കയർ (kayar), the Tamil in india and Malayalam words respectively for cord or rope (traditionally, a kind of rope made from the coconut fibre). Ropes and cordage have been made from coconut fibre since ancient times. The Austronesian peoples, who first domesticated coconuts, used coconut fibre extensively for ropes and sennit in building houses and lashed-lug plank boats in their voyages in both the Pacific and the Indian Oceans.
Later Indian and Arab navigators who sailed the seas to Malaya, China, and the Persian Gulf centuries ago also used coir for their ship ropes. Arab writers of the 11th century AD referred to the extensive use of coir for ship ropes and rigging.
A coir industry in the UK was recorded before the second half of the 19th century. During 1840, Captain Widely, in co-operation with Captain Logan and Thomas Treloar, founded the known carpet firms of Treloar and Sons in Ludgate Hill, England, for the manufacture of coir into various fabrics suitable for floor coverings.

PRODUCTION OF COCO COIR
The coconut fruit is made up of different layers. The coir lies between outer exocarp to the inner shell. To produce the coco coir, the fibrous layer of the fruit is separated from the hard shell (manually) by driving the fruit down onto a spike to split it (dehusking). A well-seasoned husker can manually separate 2,000 coconuts per day. Machines can also be used to crush the whole fruit to give the loose fibres. These machines can process up to 2,000 coconuts per hour.

After removal of the shell and the endosperm, the multipled layered coconut husk fiber are placed on a stone ground, soaked then dried for over a year.
To get coconut coir ready for hydroponic and gardening uses, it must undergo extensive processing as follows:.
Firstly, the coir is remove from the coconuts by soaking the husks in water to loosen and soften them. This is either done in tidal waters or freshwater. If done in tidal waters, the coconut coir will take up a large amount of salt, which will need to be flushed out by the manufacturer at a later stage.
Then, they are removed from the water bath and dried for over a year. After the drying process, which is quite extensive, the coir is organized into bales. These bales are then chopped and processed into various formats, from chips, to “croutons”, to classic ground coconut coir.
In 2009, researchers at CSIR’s National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology in Thiruvananthapuram developed a biological process for the extraction of coir fibre from coconut husk without polluting the environment. The technology uses enzymes to separate the fibres by converting and solubilizing plant compounds to curb the pollution of waters caused by retting of husks.

PARTS OF THE COCONUT HUSK THAT FORM THE COIR
Coco coir is made from a few different parts of the coconut husk. The three primary parts of the coconut husk are the pith, fiber, and chips.  These materials are used in a variety of consumer products such as soil amendments, top dressings, floor mats, rope, brushes and fishing nets.

THE PITH: The pith of the coconut husk comprises of extremely fine material. Coconut pith is responsible for the water retention abilities of coco coir.
Note: coconut pith is not used as a stand-alone cultivation medium because it does not drain well.

THE FIBER: Coconut fiber is the long, stringlike material that encompasses coconut husks. This fiber is extremely strong, yet it does not absorb water. As such, coconut fiber is responsible for giving coco coir its aeration qualities.

THE CHIPS: Coconut chips are exactly what they sound like – chunks of coconut husks that resemble wood chips.

PROPERTIES OF COCO COIR

1. Coco coir is a natural, eco-friendly alternative to traditional grow media.

2. It has a natural pH of around 5.5 to 6.8.

3. It promotes healthy root development.

4. It supports beneficial microbe additives.

5. It is used in products such as floor mats, doormats, brushes, and mattresses.

6. There are two varieties of coir, the white and brown coir. The brown coir (made from ripe coconut) are used in upholstery padding, sacking and horticulture.

7. White coir, harvested from unripe coconuts, is used for making finer brushes, string, rope and fishing nets.

8. It has the advantage of not sinking, so can be used in long lengths in deep water without the added weight dragging down boats and buoys.

9. Coco peat has high cellulose and lignin content.

10. Coco peat which differ from coco coir is acidic with pH range of 5.5 to 6.5, which is slightly too acidic for some plants, but many popular plants can tolerate this pH range.

11. Coconut fiber (CF) has low thermal conductivity, is very tough, ductile, durable, renewable and inexpensive.

12. It was observed in an experimental study that by partially replacing 2% of cement with CF, the compressive strength of the concrete is increased.

STRUCTURE OF COCONUT COIR (FORMS IN WHICH COIR COIR FIBRE CAN APPEAR)

Coir fibres are found between the hard, internal shell and the outer coat of a coconut. The individual fibre cells are narrow and hollow, with thick walls made of cellulose. They are pale when immature, but later become hardened and yellowed as a layer of lignin is deposited on their walls.
Each cell that make up a fiber is about 1 mm (0.04 in) long and 10 to 20 μm (0.0004 to 0.0008 in) in diameter. Fibres are typically 10 to 30 centimetres (4 to 12 in) long.

The coir fibre can be Segregated into:

a. COIR
Coir must not be confused with coir pith, which is the powdery and spongy material resulting from the processing of the coir fibre.
b. COIR FIBRE
Coir fibre is locally named ‘coprah’ in some countries, adding to confusion.
c. PITH
Pith is chemically similar to coir, but contains much shorter fibers.
d. COCO PEAT
The name coco peat may refer either to coir or the pith or a mixture, as both have good water-retaining properties as a substitute for peat.

TYPES OF COCO COIR
Purchased coconut coir product has a combination of its three types of the coconut coir: the fiber, the pith (or coconut peat), or the coco chips. This product is a wonderful growing medium with specific benefits.

1. COCO PITH OR COCO PEAT: It is so called “coco peat” because it is the fresh coco fibre somewhat like what peat is to peat moss, although it is not true peat. It is made of finely ground coconut or peat moss.
The “peat” of coconut coir, pith looks like finely ground coconut or peat moss. It is so small and absorbent that if it is solely used as growing medium might result in drowning out the roots from the plants.
It needs proper ageing before use as it can let out salts that will kill the plant if care is not taken. It is usually shipped in the form of compressed bales, briquettes, slabs or discs, the end user usually expands and aerates the compressed coco peat by the addition of water. A single kilogramme of dry coco peat will expand to 15 litres of moist coco peat.
When coco peat is not fully decomposed especially those shipped on arrival, they will use up the available nitrogen in them. As it does so (known as drawdown), it competes with the plant if there is not enough nitrogen in it. This is called nitrogen robbery. It can cause nitrogen deficiency in the plants. Poorly sourced coco fibre can have excess salts in it and needs washing. It holds water well and holds around 1,000 times more air than soil.

2. COCO FIBER: The fiber can improve airflow but it is not very absorbent. Coconut fiber adds air pockets into the medium. It’s not very absorbent, which is good because the growing media needs air pockets in order to provide oxygen to the root zone. Coconut fibers do break down rather quickly, meaning the air pockets they create will also decrease over time. In addition, adding slow release fertilizers or organic fertilizers are highly advised when growing with coco fibre.

3. COCO CHIPS: This is a hybrid between coconut peat and coconut fiber. Coconut chips are basically a natural type of expanded clay pellet. They are made from plant matter instead of clay and are best thought of as a hybrid between coco peat and coco fiber. They are large enough to create air pockets but also absorb water, making plants not to dehydrate completely.

3. BRISTLE COIR
Bristle coir is the longest variety of coir fibre. It is manufactured from retted coconut husks through a process called defibering. The coir fibre thus extracted is then combed using steel combs to make the fibre clean and to remove short fibres. Bristle coir fibre is used as bristles in brushes for domestic and industrial applications.
When using coconut coir in the garden as growing medium, these three types ( coco chips, fiber and peat ), must be in the right mixture as a single product for best results.

VARIETIES OF COIR
There are two varieties of fibers that make up coir
Brown and white.

BROWN COIR
Brown coir harvested from fully ripened coconuts is thick, strong and has high abrasion resistance. It is typically used in mats, brushes and sacking. Mature brown coir fibres contain more lignin and less cellulose than fibres from flax and cotton. They are stronger but less flexible.
Brown coir is produced when fibrous husks are soaked in pits or in nets in a slow-moving body of water to swell and soften the fibres. The long bristle fibres are separated from the shorter mattress fibres underneath the skin of the nut, a process known as wet-milling.
The mattress fibres are sifted to remove dirt and other rubbish, dried in the sun and packed into bales. Some mattress fibre is allowed to retain more moisture so it retains its elasticity for twisted fibre production. The coir fibre is elastic enough to twist without breaking and it holds a curl as though permanently waved. Twisting is done by simply making a rope of the hank of fibre and twisting it using a machine or by hand.
The longer bristle fibre is then washed in clean water and then dried before being tied into bundles or hanks. It may then be cleaned and ‘hackled’ by steel combs to straighten the fibres and remove any shorter fibre pieces. Coir bristle fibre can also be bleached and dyed to obtain hanks of different colours.

WHITE COIR
White coir fibres are harvested from coconuts before they are ripe. They are white or light brown in colour and are smoother and finer, but also weaker. They are far more flexible but much less strong. They are generally spun to make yarn used in mats or rope.
The coir fibre is relatively waterproof, and is one of the few natural fibres resistant to damage by saltwater. Fresh water is used to process brown coir, while seawater and fresh water are both used in the production of white coir.
Almost all of the coconut coir used for hydroponics is brown coir, as it is processed even more after initial harvesting.
To produce white coir, the immature husks are suspended in a river or water-filled pit for up to ten months. During this time, micro-organisms break down the plant tissues surrounding the fibres to loosen them ( a process known as retting). The segments of the husk are then beaten with iron rods to separate out the long fibres which are subsequently dried and cleaned. Cleaned fibre is ready for spinning into yarn using a simple one-handed system or a spinning wheel.

SIGNIFICANCE OF COCO COIR

1. It is used in gardening, as a bedding material for pets, and in manufacturing. 

2. Coco coir is a growing medium that can be used in potting mixes, soil amendments, and hydroponic systems. 

3. It helps soil retain moisture and improves aeration. 

4. Pet bedding: Coco coir can be used in worm bins, vivarium substrates, and as a natural bed for pets. 

5. Manufacturing: Coco coir is used in the production of floor mats, doormats, brushes, and mattresses.

6. It is used in Cordage, packaging, bedding, flooring, and others

7. It is used for making coir rope especially in Kerala, India. The coir rope is used for connecting all parts of an outrigger canoe used at Sonsorol and Palau.

8. A small amount is also made into twine.

9. Pads of curled brown coir fibre, made by needle-felting (a machine technique that mats the fibres together), are shaped and cut to fill mattresses and for use in erosion control on river banks and hillsides.

10. A major proportion of brown coir pads are sprayed with rubber latex which bonds the fibres together (rubberised coir) to be used as upholstery padding for the automobile industry in Europe. The material is also used for packaging.

11. White coir is used for making fishing nets due to its strong resistance to saltwater.

12. In agriculture and horticulture, coir is used as an organic and decorative component in soil and potting mixes.

13. Coco coir has being an alternative to the use of other grow media. There has being an increasing concern regarding the sustainability of producing sphagnum (peat moss) and peat from peatlands, therefore, usage of alternative substrates like coco coir has been a substitute.

14. Coir is used to deter snails from delicate plantings, and also it is used as growing medium in intensive glasshouse (greenhouse) horticulture.

15. Coir is used in some hydroponic growing systems as an inert substrate medium.
It is also used as a substrate to grow mushrooms.

16. Coir can be used as a terrarium substrate for reptiles or arachnids.

17. Coir fibre pith or coir dust can hold large quantities of water, just like a sponge. It is used as a replacement for traditional peat in soil mixtures, or, as a soil-less substrate for plant cultivation.

18. Coir waste from coir fibre industries is washed, heat-treated, screened and graded before being processed into coco peat products of various granularity and denseness, which are then used for horticultural and agricultural applications and as industrial absorbent.

19. Coco peat is used as a soil conditioner. Due to low levels of nutrients in its composition, coco peat is usually not the sole component in the medium used to grow plants. When plants are grown exclusively in coco peat, it is important to add nutrients according to the specific plants’ needs. Coco peat from Philippines, Sri Lanka and India contains several macro- and micro-plant nutrients, including substantial quantities of potassium. This extra potassium can interfere with magnesium availability. Adding extra magnesium through the addition of magnesium sulphates can correct this issue.

20. Aeration and Water Retention: Aeration and water retention are some of the most impressive qualities of coco coir. By combining these important characteristics, coco coir has taken the hydroponics industry by storm.
When used in a hydroponics setup, there is no need to about substrate drying out between cycles.

21. Coco coir balances water absorption capabilities with amazing breathability. Coco coir allows air to penetrate deep into the root zone of plants. In turn, this breathability helps reduce the chance for diseases like root rot, while also supporting overall plant growth.

22. By mixing coco coir with amendments like earthworm castings, nutrients are added to the otherwise raw, inert substrate. The idea behind coco coir mixes is to keep the water retention and aeration qualities of the substrate, while complementing it with ingredients found in soil.

23. It can be used on its own or in a blend and it is a highly significant growing media. Hydroponic growers love coco coir because it gives them precision control over important factors like pH, PPM, and EC.

24. coconut coir can be used as a substitute for peat because it is free of bacteria and most fungal spores, and is sustainably produced without the environmental damage caused by peat mining.

25. Coco coir can be mixed with sand, compost and fertilizer to make good quality potting soil.

26. Coco coir has a high superior absorption capabilities compared to other products made of clay, silica and diatomaceous earth-based absorbents. Dry coconut coir pith is an oil and fluid absorbent. For example, In the 2024 Manila Bay oil spill, the DILG Bataan appealed for hay, hair and coconut coir pith (husk) to process into oil booms as absorbent for the Philippine Coast Guard’s cleanup operations.

27. Animal bedding: Coconut coir pith is also used as a bedding in litter boxes, animal farms and pet houses to absorb animal waste.

28. Coconut coir is biodegradable. Home growers and commercial producers alike can use large amounts of coco coir without concern for how to dispose it after use. It can be composted after use or even burnt.

29. Biocontrol: Trichoderma coir pith cake (TCPC), when prepared has successfully being used for control of plant diseases. The dry product TCPC has a long shelf life.

30. Coir can contain beneficial life-forms. Coconut coir from Mexico has been found to contain large numbers of colonies of the beneficial fungus Aspergillus terreus, which acts as a biological control against plant pathogenic fungi.
Trichoderma is a naturally occurring fungus in coco peat; it works in symbiosis with plant roots to protect them from pathogenic fungi such as Pythium.

31. Coir fiber is rarely used as a potting material, except for orchids, and does not need buffering. It has a very low cation-exchange capacity (CEC) capacity, hence not retaining salts.

PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING COIR
Coco fibre can be re-used up to three times with little loss of yield. Coco fibre from diseased plants should not be re-used unless sterilization is thoroughly done. Many sources of coir however are heavily contaminated with pathogenic fungi. Other risks associated with using coco coir include: high salt content, nutrient deficiencies (particularly calcium and magnesium), improper processing leading to inconsistent quality, and the need for careful pH management etc, all of which can negatively impact plant growth if not properly addressed by rinsing, buffering, and using appropriate nutrient solutions. This makes the choice of the source to be important.
The following safety guide should be known before using or purchasing coco coir:

1. Coir is an allergen, as well as the latex and other materials used frequently in the treatment of coir. Coconut coir is generally hypoallergenic and safe for people with allergies or sensitivities. It contains allergens such as Coc n 1, Coc n 2, and Coc n 4 proteins. Also, coconut-derived products like cocamide sulfate, cocamide DEA, and CDEA can cause contact dermatitis. Some of the
symptoms of a coconut allergy include hives, itching, nausea, skin rash, dizziness, coughing, diarrhea, sneezing, and swelling in the throat.

2. BIOSECURITY RISKS: Coco fibre can harbor organisms that pose a threat to the biosecurity of countries into which it is imported. For example, coco peat has been imported into New Zealand since about 1989 with a marked increase since 2004. By 2009 a total of 25 new weed species have been found in imported coco peat. The regulations relating to importing coco peat into New Zealand have been amended to improve the biosecurity measures.

3. SALT BUILD-UP: Unwashed coco coir can contain high levels of natural salts, which can harm plant roots if not properly leached out before use.

4. PATHOGEN CONTAMINATION:
Coco coir can potentially harbor harmful bacteria and fungi if not sourced from a reputable supplier and properly processed.

5. NUTRIENT IMBALANCES:
Coco coir naturally binds certain nutrients like calcium and magnesium, making it necessary to supplement with these elements when growing in this medium.

6. QUALITY INCONSISTENCY:
Different batches of coco coir can vary in quality, including salt levels and fiber structure, which can affect plant growth.

7. pH FLUCTUATIONS: Coco coir can be prone to pH changes, requiring careful monitoring and adjustment with appropriate buffers.

8. ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS: Water used for cleaning coco piths may contain high level of sodium, potassium, and physical contaminants that can have a harmful affect on surface water, groundwater, and soil. Also, as a renewable resource, the production of coco coir can sometimes involve unsustainable practices like water pollution and labor exploitation.

TREATMENTS AND STERILIZATION OF COCO COIR

Coco coir can be sterilized  using heat, hydrogen peroxide, or quaternary ammonium salts. Sterilization is important to kill pathogens and weed seeds that can harm plant growth. 

1. Coco peat may be sterilized to remove potential pathogens and weeds along with beneficial life. This may be done to remove contaminants in fresh material or to reuse old coir. Both heat (boiling or baking) and chemical means can be used.
Also, coir can becomes infected by patogens after storage. After the coir is separated from the coconuts, and stored in piles for few years, The coir will be at risk of pathogens infestion due to the natural pH of the coco coir. Most producers that experience this will chemically sterilize the coir so it’s ready for use. This also has its risks, as it can prematurely break down the fibers and peat.
Therefore, the following precautions should be adhered to:
a. Avoid situations that are conducive to pathogen growth
b .Have a dedicated system to control how the coconut coir ages
c. Rinse and wash the coir to flush out salts
d. Create the right blend of pith, fibers, and chips
e. Package and store their product correctly

2. Coir can also be pasteurised with boiling water. Coir mixed with vermiculite should be pasteurised with boiling water to kill pathogens and weed seeds especially in cases where the growing medium is to be used for mushroom production. After the coir/vermiculite mix has cooled to room temperature, it should be placed in a larger container. If the media is for mushroom production for example, spawn jars should be prepared, using substrates such as rye grains or wild bird seed, added to the media.

3. CALCIUM BUFFERING SOLUTION TREATMENT:
Because coir pith is high in sodium and potassium, it is treated before use as a growth medium for plants or fungi by soaking in a calcium buffering solution. Most coir sold for growing purposes is said to be pre-treated. Once any remaining salts have been leached out of the coir pith, it and the cocochips become suitable substrates for cultivating fungi. Coir is naturally rich in potassium, which can lead to magnesium and calcium deficiencies in soilless horticultural media.

LIMITATION OF COCO COIR

1. Coconut coir is inert, meaning it has no nutrients. Eventhough it looks like soil, it still lack nutrient. It can be used as a soil amendment but not alone as hydroponic growth substrate. There is need to add nutrients to it and control the pH when using as a grow media.

2. It needs rehydration. It is usually produced dry and shipped in dry condition. To rehydrate it, more work, labourers etc are required before use.

3. Mixes can be expensive. Coconut fiber soil mixes are expensive and annoying to work with compared to coconut coir mixes. This saves a lot of time but is pretty expensive.

HOW TO USE
To use coco coir, soak the brick in water and watch it expand. Once the entire brick has crumbled, the coir is ready to use. 

STORAGE
Store coco coir in a cool, dry place and avoid exposing it to moisture or direct sunlight. 

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Perlite, also known as “volcanic popcorn”, is a crop grow media made from volcanic glass. It is a naturally occurring mineral that exists as a type of volcanic glass, created when the volcanic obsidian glass gets saturated with water over a long time.
It can be called an  amorphous volcanic glass which is dark black or grey in colour. Amorphous means that it does not have any definite shape or structure, unlike a crystal. It is pretty heavy and dense in its natural form with relatively high water content, typically formed by the  hydration  of  obsidian. It has the unusual property of expanding when heated sufficiently. It is an industrial mineral, suitable “as ceramic flux to lower the  sintering  temperature”, and a commercial product useful for its low density after processing. It is a nonrenewable resource. The major producers are Greece, US, Turkey, and Japan.
Perlite can be Organic and at thesame time inorganic mineral. This is based on different perspectives.
From a chemistry perspective, organic compounds are those that contain carbon. Perlite does not contain carbon, so it is an inorganic mineral.
In the context of using it as a grow media, like in organic farming, the meaning or the word “organic” is different. It means materials that are naturally extracted from the earth and does not undergo significant chemical processing or does not contain chemicals.
This gives reasons why it is allowed by the National Organic Standards Board for use in certified organic agriculture. In the context of this, perlite is a safe “organic” additive used for farming.

PROPERTIES OF PERLITE

1. Perlite softens when it reaches temperatures of 850–900 °C (1,560–1,650 °F).

2. When water is applied to it, the water trapped in the structure of the material vaporises and escapes, and this causes the expansion of the material to 7–16 times its original volume. The expanded material is a brilliant white, due to the reflectivity of the trapped bubbles.

3. Unexpanded (“raw”) perlite has a bulk density of around 1100 kg/m3 (1.1 g/cm3), while typical expanded perlite has a bulk density of about 30–150 kg/m3 (0.03–0.150 g/cm3).

4. Typical analysis of perlite include:
70–75% silicon dioxide: SiO2, 12–15% aluminium oxide: Al2O3, 3–4% sodium oxide: Na2O, 3–5% potassium oxide: K2O, 0.5-2% iron oxide: Fe2O3, 0.2–0.7% magnesium oxide: MgO, 0.5- 1.5% calcium oxide: CaO and 3–5% loss on ignition (chemical / combined water)

5. Perlite can be safely disposed of through existing sewage systems, although some pool operators choose to separate the perlite using settling tanks or screening systems to be disposed of separately.

6. It has a thermal and mechanical stability

7. It is non-toxicity

8. It is highly resistance against microbial attacks and organic solvents

9. It is highly permeable and it has low water retention property

10. It can helps prevent soil compaction.
CHARACTERIATICS OF PERLITE
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Perlite is encompased with enclosed air pockets, expanded perlite is very lightweight with a particle and BD of 0.7 and 0.1 g/cm3, respectively.

2. It is very porous and can hold 3–4 times its weight in water.

3. Perlite has very low bulk density ( BD). It is probably the most used substrate for green roofs , however, one has to consider the high weight of the moist substrate.

4. Perlite is probably a medium ingredient that has the highest air-filled porosity compared to other grow media.

5. Perlite exist in different fraction. These fractions have different water retaining capacity. For example, water retained at −10 kPa is much higher for the coarse fraction (0.5–1.0 mm diameter) than for the fine fraction (0.25–0.50 mm diameter) of expanded perlite. This difference in water holding capacity between the coarse and fine fractions indicates that most of the water is held by the coarse particles in internal pores. However, it is not explained by the volume of internal porosity alone. The decrease in water content with decreasing matric potential is moderate relative to sand and stone wool.

6. Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) is a measure of how easily water can pass through saturated grow media. It depends on particle diameter. The saturated hydraulic conductivity of perlite typically ranges between 0.1 to 1 cm/min depending on the particle size, with coarser perlite having a higher conductivity than finer perlite. For example, coarse perlite (1-7.5mm) can have a saturated hydraulic conductivity around 1 cm/min while fine perlite (0-1mm) may be closer to 0.01 cm/min. For commercial perlite of 0–4 mm diameter with 50% of the particles smaller than 0.5 mm, saturated hydraulic conductivity was 0.3 cm/min . In a study, a reduction of two orders of magnitude in the hydraulic conductivity was obtained as the matric potential decreased from 0 to −30 cm H2O. This change is moderate when compared to sand.

7. Due to perlite’s excellent physical characteristics, it is frequently used as a component in mixtures based on organic substrates such as compost. By this, the positive biological features of such media can be maintained for a relatively long period, while preventing compaction.

8. Perlite is physically stable and retains its shape even when pressed into the soil.

9. It is incredibly porous and contains pockets of space inside for air

10. It can retain some amount of water while allowing the rest to drain away

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Perlite is neutral with a pH of 7.0–7.5, but it has no buffering capacity and contains no mineral nutrients.

2. The inert nature and neutrality of perlite make it a favorable medium for assessing the usefulness of various forms and levels of nutrients.

3. When the pH is low, there is a risk of toxic Al release into the solution.

4. chemical composition of perlite:
70-75% silicon dioxide
Aluminum oxide
Sodium oxide
Potassium oxide
Iron oxide
Magnesium oxide
Calcium oxide
3-5% Water

5. It contains no toxic chemicals and is made from naturally occurring compounds found in soil

SOURCES AND PRODUCTION
Perlite is a non-renewable resource. The world reserves of perlite are estimated at 700 million tonnes.
Perlite world production, led by China, Turkey, Greece, USA, Armenia and Hungary, summed up to 4.6 million tonnes in 2018. The confirmed resources of perlite existing in Armenia for example, amount to about 150 million m3, whereas the total amount of projected resources reaches up to 3 billion m3. Considering the specific density of perlite with 1.1 ton/m3, the confirmed reserves in Armenia amount to 165 million tons.
Other reported reserves include: Greece – 120 million tonnes, Turkey, USA and Hungary – about 49-57 million tonnes.
Perlite is one of the several components often found in soilless growing material. It is refered to as a volcanic popcorn.” ( literal description). It is rich in water, it pops when heated to very high temperatures, exactly like popcorn. It is an ultra-lightweight mineral, absorbent, and porous. This volcanic material is processed into perlite balls by crushing natural perlite glass and then baking them in industrial ovens. The crushed volcanic glass is then run through a screen and then heated quickly to a super high temperature of 900°C (around 1650°F). The mineral structure is softened by the heat, allowing the water trapped inside to expand into steam in a bid to escape. This result to a material that is sterile, retains up to 3-4 times its weight in water and is extremely lightweight. When perlite is heated, it pops rather like popcorn until it looks a bit like white polystyrene. 
This product formed during the process of formation leads to expansion of the mineral. It is not usual for perlite pieces to expand between 7 and 16 times their original size and volume, creating those lightweight faux-styrofoam balls.
The foamy balls have a lot of porous openings inside them and are clean, sterile and generally stable. It can hold its shape with ease in the soil without crumbling.

TYPES AND GRADES OF PERLITE
Perlite manufactured for gardening and horticulture purposes are produced in various grades, the most common being 0–2.0 and 1.5–3.0 mm in diameter. The various grades differ in their physical characteristics.
There are three types of graded depending on the size of the individual particles:

1. Coarse Perlite
This has the highest porosity and draining capabilities. It is best suited for succulent plants and orchids. It is also least affected by winds. But it does not work its way up to the topsoil very easily.

2. Medium Grade Perlite
This straddles the middle ground regarding aeration and draining. It is best suited for potted seeds and seedlings.

3. Fine Perlite
This is the lightest grade, best suited for starting seeds and root cuttings. Fine particles of perlite can also be scattered lightly on top of the soil in gardens and lawns.

USES OF PERLITE

1. CONSTRUCTION AND MANUFACTURING:
In the construction and manufacturing fields, due to its lightweight, it is used as plasters, concrete and mortar,  insulation  and ceiling tiles.

2. It may also be used to build composite materials that are sandwich-structured or to create syntactic foam.

3. Perlite filters are fairly common in filtering  beer  before it is bottled.

4. Small quantities of perlite are also used in  foundries,  cryogenic insulation, and ceramics (as a clay additive).

5.  It is also used by the explosives industry.

6. AQUATIC FILTRATION: Perlite is currently used in commercial pool filtration technology, as a replacement to diatomaceous earth filters. Perlite is an excellent filtration aid and is used extensively as an alternative to diatomaceous earth. The popularity of perlite usage as a filter medium is growing considerably worldwide. Several products exist in the market to provide perlite based filtration. Several perlite filters and perlite media have met NSF-50 approval (Aquify PMF Series and AquaPerl), which standardizes water quality and technology safety and performance.

7. BIOTECHNOLOGY: Perlite is widely used in biotechnological applications. It was found to be an excellent support for immobilization of biocatalysts such as enzymes for bioremediation and sensing applications due to its thermal and mechanical stability, non-toxicity, and high resistance against microbial attacks and organic solvents,

8. AGRICULTURE:
In horticulture, perlite can be used as a soil amendment or alone as a medium for  hydroponics or for starting  cuttings. When used as an amendment, it has high permeability and low water retention and helps prevent  soil compaction.

9. COSMETICS: Perlite is used in cosmetics as an absorbent and mechanical exfoliant.

9. SUBSTITUTES: Perlite can be replaced for all of its uses. its Substitutes include:
a. Diatomite, used for filter-aids
b. Expanded clay, an alternative lightweight filler for building materials
c. Shale, Pumice, Slag
d. Vermiculite : many expanders of perlite are also exfoliating vermiculite and belong to both trade associations

10. Perlite is added to soil mediums for its water retention but more importantly for its ability to aerate soils due to its high porosity level.

11. AERATION: Plant cells need oxygen, whether Arial or underground. It is used by green parts of plant during the process of photosynthesis.
While the underground parts like the root system has to absorb oxygen from the soil. Thus, use of perlite can help aerate the soil and growth of strong root systems. It contains great air pockets meaning that perlite is great for root systems development. When the soil gets packed down, the air pockets are lost. But since perlite is a harder mineral, it retains its shape, keeping those air pockets around for the roots.

12. DRAINING: Water is an important commodity needed for survival. For plants, excess water in the soil is detrimental and can lead to drowning and death of the plant. The plant root system becomes starved of oxygen, causing eventual death. Therefore, proper drainage is required to allow empty air spaces to remain in the soil.
Adding perlite to the soil improves its drainage capabilities, as it has excellent filtering and water draining capabilities. The presence of all those pores allows most of the excess water to drain off.

13. FOR ROOT CUTTINGS: Perlite encourages root growth much better than just plain water. Seeds or cuttings can be germinated by placing them in an air-filled Ziploc bag contained moistened perlite.
It also stimulates root growth, and prevents drowning by helping drain excess water away from the cuttings. It can be used with rooting compounds.

14. STANDALONE GROWING MEDIA: Perlite is a decent option in some instances as a hydroponic medium. But it is not suitable for high water settings, like deep water culture, or ebb and flow systems.

15. In mixture with other growing media. Perlite is commonly mixed with vermiculite in equal amounts (50-50). This greatly solves the water-retaining issue of Perlite while improving the water-holding capacity of vermiculite, making it able to use in the water-rich systems.

STERILIZATION, REUSE, AND WASTE DISPOSAL
Perlite is a stable, sterile, inert materia produced at very high temperatures. Chemically, it can last for several years and its stability is not much affected by acidity or microorganisms.
After use, perlite can be recycled. This recycling process does not cause any negative environmental effect. When used perlite is reused without sterilization or treatment as a grow media, this poses a severe risky of media compaction, salt buildup, and pest contamination.

Also, it is costly to replace used perlite with new media as this increases cost of production and at thesame time farmers might not recoup back the expense from the sale of produce derived from the use of perlite.
To overcome this problems, farmers can use sterilization, solarization and heat treatment method so as to reuse the product. This comes with several advantages over use of new perlites
STEAM STERILIZATION

Perlite can be steam sterilized before Reuse as grow media so as to safeguard against pathogen contamination. This type of treatment requires the use of expensive steam generators. A disadvantage of this method is that it may not be adequate to restore perlite’s loose structure and to reduce accumulated salt content of the perlite.
In a reseach carried out to determine the effect of cleaned and disinfected used perlite over new perlite on the growth of tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum ), it was diacovered that the cleaned and disinfected used perlite is more economical to use than the new perlite and also, there was no negative effect on yield of the crop.

HOT WATER TREATMENT
In a research carried out by Hanna in 2005, the research was carried out for 8 years on the effect of heat treatment of perlite to produce tomatoes in bags, Hanna used recycled perlite and treated it with hot water (13.25 L water/18.9 L perlite) at temperatures reaching 93.3°C to leach excess salts and disinfect the medium. These perlites were used twice within a year for commercial tomato production in bag (18.9 L) culture. After harvesting, he separated the roots of the previous crops from the whole plant and discovered that the treatment raised the media temperatures above limits, resulting in the killing of several fungi and nematodes and significantly reduced salt contents (Electrical Conductivity (EC), NO3–N, and K were reduced by 43%, 50%, and 47%, respectively) with no noticeable change in physical properties [i.e., particle size distribution (PSD)] over the 8 years.
Other studies carried out in 2008 and 2016 reveals that
perlite has a natural plasticity property making it prone to mechanical compression and disintegration. This contrast the result of Hannas on the physical properties of perlite.
From these researches, it can be deduced that after cleaning and disinfecting used perlite, recycling it saves 56% of the cost to replace it with new media. Also, higher produce yield with heavier tomato fruit were realised than with new perlite. Therefore, it can be concluded that the observed yield from the recycled perlite was attributed to the collective effect of salt reduction, media disinfection, and the presence of an optimum level of nutrients. It often takes time to build up nutrients to an optimum level in new perlite. Thus, used perlite can be cleaned and disinfected and recycled for many years due to it’s non organic nature and physical and chemical stability.
Another study had proven that recycled perlite and peat–perlite mix were more suppressive against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radicis lycopersici than the newly unused media. Another efficient disinfecting method for perlite is by solarization of the growing bags within the greenhouse.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING PERLITE

1. Perlite contains silicon dioxide, therefore, goggles and silica filtering masks are recommended when handling large quantities.

2. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration  (OSHA) of USA has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for perlite exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.

3. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.

4. Perlite Toxic: Perlite is a naturally formed material and, if excess quantities are used and proper ventilation is not provided, it will be toxic.

5. Perlite and vermiculite are excessively dusty and inhalation of this dust can cause irritation in the respiratory tract or skin irritation. So, in an abundance of caution, users should wear gloves and a mask.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PERLITE AND OTHER GROW MEDIA

PERLITE VS. VERMICULITE

There are several differences between perlite and vermiculite. Both perlite and vermiculite can be found in soilless or potting mediums and both come in various grades but which is better and really depends on specific growing needs. The most distinct difference is their water retention capability. Perlite may retain water 3-4 times its weight, but vermiculite absorbs up to 16 times its weight.
Vermiculite and perlite are both volcanic material but unlike perlite, it contains minerals such as magnesium, iron, and aluminum.  Vermiculite also has traces of minerals that can be beneficial to plants but not in such an amount that supplemental nutrients will not be necessary. 
As a farmer, if water retention is the goal for selection, vermiculite is more preferred. But if better aeration and drainage are most important, perlite is the best choice.

PERLITE VS. STONEWOOL

Perlite is a lightweight, volcanic glass material that primarily functions to improve drainage and aeration in a growing medium by adding air pockets, while stone wool is a fibrous material made from melted rock, offering a more balanced combination of water retention and aeration, often used as a standalone growing substrate for plants without needing additional amendments like perlite. Essentially, perlite is typically used as an additive to enhance existing soil, while stone wool can be used on its own as a complete growing medium. 
Perlite is a naturally occurring volcanic glass, while stone wool is manufactured from melted rock spun into fibers.  Perlite has a granular, popcorn-like texture with large air pockets, whereas stone wool has a fibrous, web-like structure. 
In addition, perlite is often mixed with other potting mediums like soil or coco coir to enhance their drainage, while stone wool is typically used as a complete growing medium on its own, particularly in hydroponic systems. 

PERLITE VS. PEAT
Perlite and peat moss are both used in potting mixes and have similar physical properties. They differ in the following ways:
Perlite is produced from
Volcanic glass that expands when heated. The production is usually uniform while peat moss is an organic material that decays over time. The production varies. Perlite can
hold 3–4 times its weight in water while peat moss has
high moisture content
Perlite is an important grow media that helps with drainage and loosening heavy soil, while peat moss can improve plant growth and nutrient uptake

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Plant growth media, also known as a substrate or potting mix, is a material that supports plant growth by providing water, nutrients, air, and structure. They include: Soil, Vermiculite, Rock wool, Perlite, Peat moss,  Bark, Coir, Clay pellets, and Expanded clay etc. 
The type of growing media used depends on the environment and the specific needs of the plants being grown. 
Rockwool also known as  stone or mineral wools, is a lightweight hydroponic substrate made from spun molten basaltic rock. It is a popular and efficient growing medium for various crops, including tomatoes, peppers, melons, cucumbers,  strawberries, herbs and cut flowers and lettuce, in commercial and smaller hydroponic setups.
It is formed by spinning molten basaltic rock into fine fibers, which are then formed into cubes, blocks, slabs, or granules.
It is a natural product due to the fact that it originates from rock.
Hydroponics: Rockwool is a popular soilless growing medium used in hydroponics, a method of growing plants without soil.

ORIGIN OF  ROCK WOOL

Stone wool was discovered on the islands of Hawaii around the beginning of the nineteenth century and occurs as a natural byproduct of volcanic activity. Grodan invented and debuted stone wool as a growing media in 1969.

The use of rock wool originally started as a thermal insulation material in the construction industry, it is lightweight but highly aerated. It helps keep heat inside buildings,  easy to handle, cut and install. Towards the end of the 1960’s trials were carried out in Denmark to test the possibility of using stone wool as a substrate for hydroponic plants and since then, rock wool has being seen as a growing media for continious development and improvement.

Today, Rock wool is used by both large scale commercial producers and small scale crop growers.  Apart from the selection of different sized rock wool cubes, blocks and plugs for propagation, growing slabs and granulated rock wool exist for the production of longer term crops and fruiting plants.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCK WOOL
The way in which the molten rock fibres are stacked and the density inside the rock wool product determine the properties of the growing media.
Some of its characteristics include:
1. It has high moisture holding capacity
2. It is highly porous making it to be well aerated or air filled. 3. It has good moisture gradient from the top to the base of the cube or growing slab.
4. One of the most important characteristics of rock wool is that plants are still able to extract water for growth at very low moisture tensions in the media. That means that plants can easily extract water when the rock wool is saturated from recent irrigation and when the rock wool slab has dried down considerably and lost as much as 70-80% of its moisture content, levels which in other growing media would cause severe wilting in the crop.
5. The moisture gradient between the top and base of a rock wool growing slab, cube or block is also one of the important characteristics of the product. After irrigation,  the base of the rock wool is always saturated with plenty of moisture, while the upper layers of the rock wool are held in a drier condition and hence have access to plenty of aeration and oxygen for root uptake and respiration. It is this moisture gradient from top to bottom of the rock wool material which make it such a good hydroponic substrate, but at the same time growers who are not aware of this property can make the mistake of thinking the rock wool is too dry on the surface and over irrigate the plants despite having plenty of nutrient solution held deep down in the root system.
These properties of the rock wool can easily be altered, making rock wool products available for different applications by growers. For example, the product can be designed to maintain a slightly drier root zone and helps steer crops away from overly vegetative growth, while another may be designed for ultra quick root growth and development. This allows growers to choose the rock wool product which best suits their system, crop, irrigation strategy and environment to maximise plant growth and development.
6. Irrigation of rock wool is a little different to other solid substrates because of the way the material is manufactured to have just the right degree of moisture gradient and because it does give a limited root zone for plants that eventually grow fairly large. For this reason, most rock wool products are best irrigated with short, frequent applications of nutrient solution, with just enough at each irrigation for the rock wool to reach `field capacity’.
Field capacity is a term which means the substrate has drained fully but is still holding a good level of moisture for the plant roots to access until the next irrigation. At each irrigation, there should be some drainage from the rock wool material, however this should not be excessive. Having around 10-35% of the nutrient solution fed to the plants drain from the rock wool as each irrigation is considered optimal. This amount of drainage of solution flushes fresh nutrient solution right through the rock wool slab and usually keeps the EC in the slab fairly stable.
7. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (EC) management: Rock wool has very low electrical conductivity, meaning it is considered a poor conductor of electricity due to its primarily fibrous, porous structure composed of volcanic rock fibers, making it a good insulator in electrical applications. However, its conductivity can slightly increase depending on factors like moisture content and the presence of conductive additives.
Rock wool electrical conductivity directly increases with moisture content, meaning that as the rock wool absorbs more moisture, its electrical conductivity also increases. This means that, the higher the electrical conductivity, the greater the moisture content within the rock wool material.
It is important to check the rock wool EC at the root zone  just as it is with any other substrate. Rock wool does not contain any naturally occurring minerals or salts which may influence EC levels. The EC of the nutrient solution inside the growing substrate changes as plants extract different ratios of water and nutrients from the root zone. Therefore, it is important to careful monitor and control  both the EC and pH in the nutrient solution in recirculating rock wool systems  just as it is important with other growing media.
Under warmer growing conditions, plants can extract high levels of water from a nutrient solution, thus increasing the EC rapidly and requiring the addition of greater amounts of top-up water in the nutrient reservoir. Under cooler and/or humid conditions, the EC may drop as plants extract nutrients but do not require as much water, making frequent checks and adjustment of EC levels important for maintaining growth control.
8.  Rockwool is stable and has no adverse environmental impacts. The product can typically be disposed of in an ordinary landfill (local regulations may apply).
9. Stone wool growing media can be used for cultivation of plants in Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA). It has neutral pH and has air pockets that make it suitable for hydroponics. These air pockets supply  oxygen and moisture to plant root zone. This type of soilless growing media is ideally suited to indoor cultivation, from vegetables and floriculture to medicinal crops.

BENEFITS OF USING ROCKWOOL
1. LIGHTWEIGHT AND ABSORBENT:
Rockwool is lightweight, making it easy to handle and highly absorbent, allowing it to hold a significant amount of water and nutrients.
2. EFFICIENT WATER AND NUTRIENT DISTRIBUTION:
It provides uniform distribution of water and plant nutrients, ensuring plants have access to what they need.
3. CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT:
As rockwool is inert and contains no nutrients, growers have complete control over the nutrient solution provided to the plants.
4. IMPROVED ROOT ZONE TECHNOLOGY:
Rockwool’s structure promotes healthy root development and oxygenation, leading to improved plant growth.
5. VERSATILE:
It can be used for a wide variety of crops, including vegetables, fruits, herbs, and flowers.
6. COST-EFFECTIVE:
Rockwool is a relatively inexpensive and efficient hydroponic substrate.
7. pH AND EC LEVELS:
Because rockwool is inert, growers need to carefully monitor and adjust the pH and EC (electrical conductivity) of the nutrient solution, as there is no buffering capacity from the substrate itself.

8. DISPOSAL:
The disposal of mineral wool can pose environmental challenges, so proper disposal methods are crucial. It can easily be recycled into raw materials for products such as new stone wool and bricks.
9. IMPROVE ROOT ZONE: Rock wool can easily be used by smaller hydroponic growers who want to take advantage of improved root zone technology.
10. Stone wool has a unique fibre content which makes the cultivation on stone wool growing media very easy to control. The grower can administer the precise amount of water and nutrients the crops need in a very directed and controlled manner, to achieve optimal growing results. Waste becomes a thing of the past.
11. Efficient use of water and nutrients keeps yield per square metre high, and energy consumption per unit of product low.
12. Rock wool is sterile and inert and thus makes an excellent seed germination and growing medium. It is a growing medium for germinating and raising seedlings due to its high aeration and good water retention properties.
13. It has high success rates,
Sterile, affordable and easy to use.
14.  By increasing the time between irrigations and allowing the EC in the root zone to increase, the rock wool slab dry back. This pushes plants such as tomatoes into a more generative state with less leaf growth and more assimilate being directed into the fruit. A higher level of moisture maintained in the rock wool and a lower EC pushes the plants towards more vegetative growth rate. Skilful growers use these techniques in rock wool growing media to direct their crop and control leaf, flower and fruit growth at different times.
15. Rock wool, being a ‘sterile’ product (only directly after production) does not contain any naturally occurring beneficial microbial populations when first planted out, however research has shown that microbial life does develop in rock wool substrates in the same way as other more ‘organic’ mediums such as peat and coco. This build up of beneficial microbial populations however is generally slower in rock wool as there are initially limited carbon sources for the microbes to feed on.
16. As root systems develop and produce organic exudate, microbial life inside rock wool gradually build, however rock wool can be inoculated with microbial products to assist this process and help develop a healthy root zone.
In addition, the high level of oxygenation in a well managed rock wool system  helps with the establishment and multiplication of beneficial microbe populations.
17.  Rock wool, an essential rock does not decompose, fracture or break down over time, hence growers can use it for many successive crops, that is, it is reusable.
18. Stone wool is a highly suitable growing medium for Controlled Environment Agriculture, or indoor cultivation environments. This closed environment, in combination with stone wool and automated growing systems, allows for every aspect of the plants’ lighting, nutrition and irrigation to be controlled by the grower. Stone wool products are designed for precision growing and are fully compatible with the sensors and automation tools utilized in a data-driven cultivation strategy.

19. Stone wool is much less likely to be contaminated by fungi, yeasts and bacteria as well as insects and microbes that feed and live on carbon-based organic matter in coco coir and soils. Therefore enhancing crop quality.

HOW TO MAKE STONE WOOL
Rockwool is the product of molten rock which has been spun around at high heat (similar to fairy floss). The result is a light material with thousands of tiny cavities that help store water and air.
Stone wool is made from basalt, a solidified lava spewed from the innermost depths of the earth. The extracted basalt and raw stone material is re-liquefied in furnaces at a temperature of 2700°F ( 1500°C). The molten rock is injected with air and spun into a fibrous, yet light consistency resembling spun sugar. The material is treated with a hydrophilic binder to facilitate liquid absorption, which ensures even distribution of water and nutrients upon use. Next, it is congealed in a hardening kiln using hot air at > 390°F (200°C) after which it is compressed into wool packets.
The stone wool packets are then cut into a graduated series of sizes and shapes—from small-sized plugs to larger blocks and slabs, each designed for various crops and for different stages of crop production. The finished products are wrapped in a special film that blocks UV light and limits the growth of algae on the growing media surface.
The result is a clean and uniform growing medium with plenty of space for roots to grow and access moisture, nutrients and oxygen from well-distributed irrigation. Clean stone wool is designed to retain water as well as air, while also promoting healthy drainage from top to bottom – unlike soil-based media that are prone to compaction and certain soilless media that can become hydrophobic (water-repelling) if allowed to dry out.

ADVANTAGES OF ROCK WOOL
1. Rock wool has many advantages for hydroponic production: The manufacture of the rock wool fibres from molten rock and plastic wrapping of growing slabs ensures the product is sterile, and free from weed seeds, pests and pathogens.
2. High quality rock wool brands are consistent in quality and do not decompose or break down over time in the way that many other natural growing substrates do.
3. Rockwool maintains it physical properties over time and with successive crops. It
is light weight and thus easy to handle and shift into place, once fully irrigated however it becomes heavy and provides stability to the crop.
4. Rock wool comes in a convenient range of sizes from small 2-3 cm propagation plugs joined in sheets for direct sowing crops such as lettuce and other seedlings, to large cubes of over 10cm for more advanced transplants.
5. The plugs are often used for cuttings where they maintain the ideal levels of aeration and moisture for rapid root development.
6. Rock wool can be inoculated with beneficial microbes such as Trichoderma in much the same way other substrates like coco are, however more frequent applications of microbial products are recommended with rock wool substrates.
7. Most rock wool products and reliable brands do not have any major influence on the EC, pH or composition of the nutrient solution applied. Since rock wool provides no naturally occurring nutrients a well balanced nutrient product applied will give optimal growth.
8. Rockwool is manufactured to give a close to ideal level of moisture and aeration in the root zone. This helps prevent over watering and root suffocation from a lack of oxygenation.
9. Rock wool can be used for successive crops as its structure does not tend to break down rapidly with use or over time. some commercial tomato growers use good quality rock wool for as many as 6 successive crops with use of steam sterilisation to control root pathogens between plantings.
10. The products and growing slabs come ready to use, the substrate only needs to be thoroughly wetted before planting.
11. Rockwool can be monitored with a water content meter which gives accurate measurement of the water content, EC and temperature in the plant’s root zone environment. These assist with fine turning the application of nutrient solution to just the right level for each stage of growth.

DISADVANTAGES OF ROCK WOOL

1. Rockwool is bulky to transport and store, unlike coco slabs which can be highly compressed and then expanded with water before use.
2. It needs to be placed on a fully levelled surface to allow the moisture gradient inside the product to be even and prevent any saturation or overly dry patches from developing.
3. Despite being usable for more than one crop, and some recycling programs developed for used rock wool, disposal can still be a problem for many growers as rock wool does not decompose or break down over time.
4. Rockwool fibres can irritate the skin and a face mask is recommended if handling granulated rock wool or disposing of old rock wool products.
5. Rockwool contains no naturally occurring nutrients (coco often contains levels of potassium and sometimes other minerals which are used to pre condition the substrate), hence the plants are totally reliant on a well balanced and complete hydroponic nutrient solution at each stage of growth.
6. Being an inert substrate made from rock, rockwool does not contain naturally occurring growth stimulants such as humic acid, other organic compounds or naturally occurring beneficial microbes, although these can be added with the use of good quality hydroponic supplement products.
7. New or inexperienced growers need to determine the right frequency and amount of irrigation for rock wool systems as this can differ somewhat from other substrates such as perlite and coco. Therefore, to use rockwool, there is need for technical know- how.

HOW MOISTURE IS MAINTAINED IN  ROCK WOOL PRODUCTS
Standard rock wool products are highly porous, meaning they  drain freely after irrigation and contain 80% nutrient solution, 15% air pore space and 5% rock wool fibres, although these ratios differ slightly between rock wool brands and products. A typical rock wool slab, such as those used for tomatoes and other fruiting crops, contains around 9 litres of nutrient solution immediately after irrigation, despite the drainage holes allowing free drainage of excess solution.
During  irrigation of rock wool,  it should not be left sitted in the nutrient solution that makes it completely saturated from top to bottom like a sponge. It is important for users of the rock wool to allow it drain completely so that excess nutrient solution applied can be absorbed from  the slab or cube under the pull of gravity. By doing this, fresh air will be drawn into the top layers of the material, providing fresh oxygenation for the root zone.
When  rock wool are allowd to drain freely, over watering becomes more difficult.

MECHANISMS OF GROWING CROPS IN STONEWOOL 
Stone wool  cultivation system consists of plugs, blocks and slabs. The plug is used for sowing. It is the hole where the seed grows into a seedling. Then the seedling with the plug is transplanted in a block in which it is grown into a full-fledged young plant. The full-fledged young plant with block is then placed on the slab for growing to maturity and producing fruits.

USING ROCK WOOL TO RAISE SEEDLINGS
To germinate seeds in rockwool, make sure that the rockwool cubes have been fully soaked, place 2-3 seeds in the hole at the top of each rockwool cube. Make sure the seeds have been “activated” by wetting them with some water to help them germinate. Ensure that the rockwool cubes are sitting in about 1cm of water as this will help them stay hydrated. To maximise success with germination, you can use a clear glass or plastic cup/bowl/container to create a warm and humid greenhouse effect which can speed up the progress of your seeds sprouting.

USING ROCKWOOL TO  PRODUCE ROOT CUTTINGS

Cuttings can be rooted in rockwool. Prepare by soaking the rockwool cube in water, then simply cut the propagules from the parent plant (usually just below a “node” on the plant stem), and then trim some of the unecessary leaves back. Dip the cutting in rooting hormone (optional) and embed the cutting slightly in the hole at the top of the rockwool cube. Keep the cutting in bright indirect light

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN STONE WOOL AND OTHER GROWING MEDIA
The main difference between stone wool, coco coir, peat and soil growing media is that stone wool is mineral-based, not carbon-containing organic matter. It is made of natural stone, not coconut husks, bog-sourced peat moss or the composted wood byproducts found in most potting soils.
During manufacturing of stone wool, it is heated to such extreme temperatures of about 3,000°F/ 1500°C. This makes it hygienic, clean growing media free of pathogens. It is also fully compatible with hydroponic and automated growing systems, as well as automated irrigation technologies that rely on precise control unlike other substrate medium.

PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING ROCK WOOL
1. It is recommended that rock wool is steamed or at least treated with boiling water before replanting to help prevent any carry over of root disease pathogens.
2. A thorough leaching with clean water can helps remove any excess salts from the previous crop planted.
3.  Chemical disinfectants can be used to treat rock wool before use. However, care needs to be taken to completely rinse these chemicals from the material before replanting and steam or hot water can be used which is  a much safer option.
4. After use of rock wool material, it should be disposed off. Often,  growers simply dump them causing environmental pollution. However, this materials can be shred and re use as a growing mixes, or incorporate it into outdoor soils and gardens as a soil conditioner.

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The world of today is developing different technology that will help farmers increase their production, and at thesame time in the case of crops, improve soil fertility and soil health. Different sustainable farming practices have being developed which has helped reduce the carbon footprint of agricultural activities. The use of synthetic polymers such as rock wool, peat, and coir has been used over soil as a medium for plant growth and development. These materials are non-renewable, non-biodegradable, and environmentally harmful. Fortunately, a better media solution has been developed. This technology is called “Gelponics”.
Gelponics is a range of non-synthetic hydrogel formulations (granules, sheets and plugs) that control fertiliser, reduce complexity and save water – making them a suitable replacement for rock wool, peat and coir.
This non-synthetic hydrogel formulations is a sustainable growth substrate for plants. It is made from sustainable low-carbon products, and it is entirely compostable, which significantly reduces an organization’s carbon footprint. This substrate is perfect for use in vertical farming, where space is limited, and the use of traditional soil is impractical.
 Gelponics is a simplified substrate over the use of traditional soil in farming operation. The use of soil can be complex, as soil quality varies and requires careful monitoring and adjustment. But in Gelponics, the substrate is consistent, and the water and nutrient content can be easily adjusted to suit the plants’ needs. This reduces the need for extensive testing and ensures optimal growing conditions for plants.

BENEFITS OF GELPONICS
Gelponics with its nutrient delivery system also has additional benefits including:

1. RECYCLABLE: The Gelponics hydrogel product can be reused locally as a carbon-sequestering soil additive.

2. WATER-HOLDING: Gelponics has a significant water-holding capacity for precision nutrient delivery to the plant roots. The hydrogel formulation can hold water and nutrients for extended periods, which means that less water is needed to maintain healthy plant growth.

3. IMPROVES FOOD GROWTH CONDITIONS : Gelponics improved food growth conditions by increasing yield, lowering energy costs and lowering CO2 emissions as well.
 4. Gelponics is a great alternative to peat and stone wool.

5. It has environmentally friendly attributes.

6. It is 100% compostable

7. It has a low-carbon footprint.

8. It is a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative to synthetic polymers like rock wool, peat, and coir that are widely used in traditional agriculture

9. Apart from its environmental benefits, Gelponics also has practical advantages in vertical farming operations.

10. The use is highly significant, especially in regions experiencing water scarcity, as it reduces water consumption and promotes water conservation.

11. Gelponics can control the release of nutrients, ensuring that plants receive the required amount of fertilizer and reducing the risk of overfertilization.

12. It not only saves time and money, but also reduces the environmental impact of fertilizer runoff.

13. No laboratory test is required unlike soil test required to determine the nutrient status of soil before planting and fetilizer recommendation.

14. Gelponics optimises resource utilisation through quantifiable scientific metrics. It meticulously manage nutrient levels, water distribution, and crop health, 16. Gelponics ensures that every scientific variable utilized contributes to the economic viability of vertical farming. Its role in resource efficiency aligns seamlessly with the scientific principles of sustainability.

15. Gelponics is highly effective in extreme climates because of its excellent water retention properties. In hot and arid environments, it significantly reduces water loss by holding moisture at the roots, while in cooler climates, it helps to maintain the moisture balance, preventing oversaturation.
This means that the hydrogel is resilience, that is, it can adapt to different growing conditions, making it an ideal tool for consistent crop production regardless of the climate.

16. COST-EFFICIENCY: By reducing the need for frequent irrigation, Gelponics cuts down on long-term expenses.

17. Gelponics has a stand advantage over other water retaining growth media due to its advanced water-holding capacity and nutrient-release mechanism. Unlike traditional water retention tools, Gelponics absorbs and holds large amounts of water and releases moisture as plants need it, reducing both over-watering and under-watering risks.

18. It is biodegradable and designed explicitly for vertical farming and hydroponic systems, offering a precision solution that other soil additives or retention products cannot match

19. Vertical Farming: GelPonics shines in vertical farming due to its efficient use of space and water.

20. It can be used in indoor Gardening

21. GREEN ROOFS: It also works well in indoor gardens or rooftops, making it a versatile choice for urban projects.

22. COMMUNITY GARDENS: Many community gardens have adopted this technology, which has boosted their productivity while lowering water usage

ADVANTAGES OF GELPONICS

1. Made from sustainable low-carbon products, significantly reducing an organization’s carbon footprint.

2. It is entirely compostable.

3. It helps reduce waste.

4. It is a means of promoting organic fertilizer

5. Replaces environmentally harmful synthetic materials like rock wool, peat, and coir usage.

6. It can save water.

7. It control fertilizer usage.

8. It simplify the farming process

9. The hydrogel formulation holds water and nutrients for extended periods, reducing the need for constant watering and fertilization

10. It is cost effective
DISADVANTAGES OF GELPONICS

1. Requires careful monitoring of the moisture and nutrient content to ensure optimal growing conditions for plants

2. Initial cost may be higher than traditional substrates

3. Requires expertise and training to set up and operate effectively

4. Power outages can be devastating

5. Energy consumption: it require high energy costs to run lights and control humidity
Plant suitability

6. It is only suitable for specific types of plants like vegetables and not root crops like yam

7. The wrong setup could spread pests.

THREATS TO FOOD SECURITY THAT LEAD TO DEVELOPMENT OF GELPONICS
Agricultural causes of food insecurity include land degradation, water scarcity, drought, conflicts, tradition method of faming and climate change etc. These issues can reduce the amount of food that can be produced to meet the needs of a country’s populace. Land degradation due to overmining of nutrients, water scarcity due to weather condition like drought and even traditional farming methods where soil is used for farming, all result in low yield and profitability.
In the United Kingdom alone, only 5% of water use happens at home, with 5% used by businesses to create products and services, and the rest is used in agriculture. In Nigeria, a tropical country, farmers rely on rainfall to produce crops which only is available during rainy season. During dry season, production seizes, left to farmers that can install irrigation facilities on their farm. Also, farmers near wetlands like FADAMA area also produce in low quantity.
This shows that one of the most critical resources in agriculture is water. It is also becoming more scarce as we consume around 4 trillion cubic metres of fresh water a year. The global population will only continue to grow, threatening (placing further pressures on) food production (processes).

Climate change is another of the biggest threats to our food supply chain. Rising temperatures are increasing the likelihood of extreme events like floods and droughts, all of which devastate agricultural production. Heat itself is damaging to plants and some regions may no longer be able to grow some staple crops they need to feed the populace.
This effect of climate change significantly impacts water availability for agriculture by causing changes in precipitation patterns, leading to more frequent and severe droughts in many regions, thus reducing the amount of water available for irrigation and potentially causing crop failures, while also increasing the risk of flooding in other areas due to extreme weather events.
With the amount of water available for food production becoming scarcer, crop productivity and yield continues to reduce.
All this had lead to effortless researches and creating new technology to help with water management and preservation. Thus, the inventions of a biodegradable hydrogels came to being as an alternative to soil usage in agriculture production.

HYDROGELS
Hydrogels are water-absorbing polymers that have been used for scientific purposes for many years but were only introduced to agriculture in the early 1980s. The benefit of using them for agriculture is that they can absorb a large amount of water, up to 100 times their dry weight, without dissolving. It is a superabsorbent polymers (SAP).

Natural polymers used to form hydrogels include proteins such as collagen and gelatin, and polysaccharides like agarose and alginate. The single polymer molecule link together to form a chain of a single giant molecule called hydrogel. They are acrylate-based products, meaning they are non-biodegradable, they could be toxic making them to be labelled as potential soil pollutants. All these are the negative effects of hydrogel and also reasons they where not used long before now to produce man’s food.
As at today, hydrogel is made from non-toxic, environmentally friendly materials that have been tested for compatibility with food crops. It can be used to grow vegetables, herbs, and fruits with no harmful chemicals leaching into the produce. Thus, making the produce safe and edible with no health effect. Therefore, it is a trustworthy choice for growing high-quality crops and healthy food.

Hydrogel enhances plant growth in vertical farming by directly providing a consistent, controlled water supply to the roots. This innovative solution minimises water waste and ensures plants receive the ideal hydration level. The hydrogel also retains nutrients, releasing them gradually, which helps maintain optimal growth conditions in the often compact setups of vertical farming environments. It promotes healthier root development, faster growth, and improved yields.

GELPONICS MECHANISMS—SCIENTIFIC INTRICACIES OF GELPONICS AND ITS IMPACT ON THE LANDSCAPE OF VERTICAL FARMING.
(Gelponics in Vertical Farming Understanding the Scientific Architecture )

Vertical farming is a scientific innovation developed to ease farming operation. It involves cultivating crops in stacked layers and optimising resources and space. Nutrients are supplied to plants through water recirculatory system etc.
Gelponics, another innovative technology, has being used to elevate this scientific approach (vertical farming) by intricately balancing nutrient absorption, root health, and overall plant physiology. It operates by gel-like matrix medium which acts as a scientific catalyst, creating an environment where plants can thrive with precision.
It modulates chemical reactions within the substrate, enhancing nutrient bioavailability. This adaptability serves as an elegant scientific solution, transcending traditional growth substrates ( soil).

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF GELPONICS
From scientific researches on the utilzation of gelponics as a growth media in vertical farming, this scientific discovery had proven that Gelponics reduces the ecological footprint by reducing the reliance on pesticides, conserving water, and enhancing climate resilience. It is precise and an efficient sustainable resource management practice.
In addition, Vertical farms enriched by Gelponics, efficiently utilise space, reduce transportation costs, and is an all year-round crop production practice.

IMPORTANCE OF GELPONICS OVER OTHER TYPES OF SUBSTRATE
Because of Geoponics properties, they are excellent replacement for the two most common types of substrate used in agriculture:

1. PEAT : Peat is a brown spongy deposit resembling soil, formed by accumulation of partial decomposition of vegetable matter or decomposition of organic matter in the wet acidic conditions of bogs and fens, and often cut out and dried for use as fuel and in gardening. These materials ( that is, organic matter or vegetable matter) are collected due to waterlogging, oxygen shortage, excessive acidity, and nutrient deficit.
Peat is only found in natural environments known as peatlands, bogs, mires, moors, or muskegs. It is likely to be banned in the UK and Europe by 2030.

2. STONE WOOL :
Stone wool is a highly versatile material, serving dual roles as an effective insulation solution and a growth medium. It is made principally from volcanic rock. It is comprised of 70% natural raw materials including basalt, dolomite and similar rocks, which are generally melted in a cupola furnace with a carbon-containing energy source. It can be recycled at the end of its life, reducing landfill waste.
Stone wool is a highly suitable growing medium for Controlled Environment Agriculture, or indoor cultivation environments. This closed environment, in combination with stone wool and automated growing systems, allows for every aspect of the plants’ lighting, nutrition and irrigation to be controlled by the grower.
It is not a sustainable option, as it has a very high carbon footprint.
While the Gelponics system allows the release of nutrients for plants’ optimal growth, increasing the soil’s nutrient and water retention capabilities. It is an affordable and sustainable food production innovation. The hydrogel-based substrate offers positive protection for plant and seed and do not cause any nutrient loss, soil fertility or water consumption.

In conclusion, GelPonics play a crucial role in harmonising precision, sustainability, and profitability in farm production. The use of GelPonics in Vertical Farming system has transformed the system into a revolutionalized soilless farming system and not merely a farming practice.
This sustainable growth substrate is made from low-carbon products, entirely compostable, and can replace environmentally harmful synthetic materials such as rock wool, peat, and coir. Apart from this, it saves water, control fertilizer, no need of compaction and increase productivity in agricultural operations. By using Gelponics, carbon footprint is reduced significantly and it promote sustainable farming practices that will benefit human, plants, animals, the environment and human communities.

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Peat is a brown spongy deposit resembling soil, formed by the partial decomposition of vegetable matter in the wet acidic conditions of bogs and fens, and often cut out and dried for use as fuel and in gardening. It is also refered to as accumulation of partially decomposed organic matter. These materials ( that is, organic matter or vegetable matter) are collected due to waterlogging, oxygen shortage, excessive acidity, and nutrient deficit.
Peat is only found in natural environments known as peatlands, bogs, mires, moors, or muskegs.
Peat and peat moss are atimes used to mean thesame thing. But the difference is that
peat moss is a specific type of peat that contains sphagnum moss. It is often used in potting soils, has a pH of 3.0–4.0, contain high amount of tannins and it also contains a mixture of organic materials, including moss, decaying plant matter, and dead insects.
Peat is formed in natural areas called  peatlands,  mires, moors, muskegs, and wetlands like bogs and swamps. It is made up of organic matter, mineral matter, and water. It is a major carbon sink that helps prevent global warming.

Soils consisting primarily of peat are known as histosols. Peat formed in  wetland  conditions, where flooding or stagnant water obstructs the flow of oxygen from the atmosphere, brings about a slow rate of decomposition of the materials.
Peatlands, particularly bogs, are the primary source of peat, although less common. Other wetlands including;  fens,  pocosins and peat swamp forests, also deposit peat. Landscapes covered in peat are home to specific kinds of plants, including Sphagnum moss, ericaceous shrubs and sedges.  Peat properties such as organic matter content and saturated hydraulic conductivity can exhibit high spatial heterogeneity.

PEATLAND ECOSYSTEM
By volume, there are about 4 trillion cubic metres of peat in the world. The peatland  ecosystem covers 3.7 million square kilometres (1.4 million square miles) and is the most efficient carbon sink on the planet, because peatland plants capture carbon dioxide (CO2) naturally released from the peat, maintaining an equilibrium. In natural peatlands, the “annual rate of biomass production is greater than the rate of decomposition”, but it takes “thousands of years for peatlands to develop the deposits of 1.5 to 2.3 m (4.9 to 7.5 ft), which is the average depth of the boreal (northern) peatlands”,which store around 415 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon (about 46 times 2019 global CO2 emissions). Globally, peat stores up to 550 Gt of carbon, 42% of all soil carbon, which exceeds the carbon stored in all other vegetation types, including the world’s forests, although it covers just 3% of the land’s surface.
Apart from carbon production, peat is also a good source of energy. Peat is only a minor contributor to the world  energy supply, but large deposits occur in Canada, China, Indonesia, Russia, Scandinavia, and the United States. In the early 21st century the top four peat producers in the world were Finland, Ireland, Belarus, and Sweden, and most of the major users of peat were these and other northern European countries. Peat is sometimes considered a “slowly renewable energy” and is classified as a “solid fossil” rather than a biomass fuel by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Although peat is not strictly a fossil fuel, its greenhouse gas emissions are  comparable  to those of fossil fuels.
IMPORTANCE AND USES OF PEAT

1. Economically, peat is important as a fuel source and raw material. It can be used as fuel once dried. Traditionally, peat is cut by hand and left to dry in the sun. In many countries, including  Ireland  and Scotland, peat are traditionally stacked to dry in rural areas and used for cooking and domestic heating. This tradition can be traced back to the Roman period.

2. It is a common organic soil amendment. Never the less, it is discouraged as a soil amendment by the Royal Botanic Gardens in England, since 2003. While bark or coir-based peat-free potting soil mixes are on the rise, particularly in the UK, peat is still used as raw material for horticulture in some other European countries, Canada, as well as parts of the United States.

3. Peat moss is used in potting and garden soils to grow plants. It is used by gardeners and for horticulture in certain parts of the world, but this is being banned in some places.

4. It is also used in hydroponic gardening

5. Peat is a good growing medium for young plant roots

6. It can be used to manage soil pH. It can help neutralize alkaline soil

7. Peat moss is sterile, so it does not contain microorganisms, pathogens, and weed seeds.

8. Because organic matter accumulates over thousands of years, peat deposits provide records of past vegetation and climate by preserving plant remains, such as pollen. This allows the reconstruction of past environments and the study of land-use changes.

9. WATER SOURCE:  For industrial uses,  companies do use pressure to extract water from the peat, which is soft and easily compressed.

10. In Sweden, farmers use dried peat to absorb excrement from cattle that are wintered indoors.

11. The most essential property of peat is retaining moisture in container soil when it is dry while preventing the excess water from killing roots when it is wet.

12. Peat can store  nutrients  although it is not fertile itself. It is polyelectrolytic with a high ion-exchange capacity due to its oxidized lignin.

13. Peatland can also be an essential source of drinking water, providing nearly 4% of all potable water stored in reservoirs. In the UK, 43% of the population receives drinking water sourced from peatlands, with the number climbing to 68% in Ireland. Catchments containing peatlands are the main source of water for large cities, including Dublin.

14. Peat is a prized natural habitat. It serves as a carbon sink, provides excellent animal habitats, aids in water management (it can hold up to 20 times its weight in water.), and preserves archaeological sites.

15. Peat is important for archaeology since peat maintains a record of former plants, landscapes, and people

16. Peat wetlands also used to have a degree of  metallurgical  importance in the Early Middle Ages. It is the primary source of bog iron used to create swords and armour

17.  Paleoecological studies of peat can be used to reveal what plant communities were present in a locality and region, what period each community occupied the areas, how environmental conditions changed, and how the environment affected the ecosystem in that time and place.

18. In Finland, their climate  favours bog and peat bog formation. Therefore, peat is in abundance and It is burned to produce heat and electricity. Peat provides around 4% of Finland’s annual energy production.

19. Mineral production: The formation of peat is the first step in the  formation  of coal. With increasing depth of burial and increasing temperature, peat deposits are gradually changed to lignite. With increased time and higher temperatures, these low-rank coals are gradually converted to subbituminous and bituminous coal and under certain conditions to anthracite.

20. Peat soil may improve ventilation in organic soil mix and give plants’ roots more breathing space.

21. Apart from peat being used for domestic heating purposes, it also forms a fuel suitable for boiler firing in either briquetted or pulverized form.

22. In horticulture, peat is used to increase the moisture-holding capacity of sandy soils and to increase the water infiltration rate of clay soils.

23. It is also added to potting mixes to meet the acidity requirements of certain potted plants.

24. Peat can be used in water filtration and is sometimes utilized for the treatment of urban runoff, wastewater, and septic tank effluent.

25. It is also used to soften aquarium water and to mimic habitats for freshwater fish

25. Flood mitigation: Many peat swamps along the coast of Malaysia serve as a natural means of flood mitigation. Any overflow will be absorbed by the peat, provided forests are still present to prevent peat fires.

26. Peat has being reported to be soft and therefore suitable for demersal (bottom-dwelling) species such as Corydoras catfish. Peat has also being reported to have many other beneficial functions in freshwater aquaria. It softens water by acting as an ion exchanger, it also contains substances that are beneficial for plants and fishes’ reproductive health. Peat can prevent algae growth and kill microorganisms. Peat often stains the water yellow or brown due to the leaching of tannins.

27. Balneotherapy: Peat is widely used in  balneotherapy  (the use of bathing to treat disease). Many traditional spa treatments include peat as part of peloids. Such health treatments have an enduring tradition in European countries, including Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany and Austria. Some of these old spas date back to the 18th century and are still active today. The most common types of peat application in balneotherapy are peat muds, poultices and suspension baths.

28. Peat archives: Peat archives are the fossilized remains of plant and animal life, as well as archaeological artifacts, that are preserved in peat deposits. The fossilized changes occur for a very long time in which the vegetation, pollen, spores, animals (from microscopic to the giant elk), and archaeological remains are deposited in place by water, as well as pollen, spores and particles brought in by wind and weather. These remains are collectively termed the peat archives.
Peats are bioaccumulators of metals which concentrated in the peat. Accumulated mercury is of significant environmental concern. Scientists uses peat archieves to estimate and compare  mercury (Hg) accumulation rates especially in bogs using natural archives records in peat bogs and lake sediments and also to estimate the potential human impacts on the biogeochemical cycle of mercury,

29. Bog bodies:
Naturally mummified human bodies are called “bog bodies”. These mummified human bodies are found in various places of Scotland, England, Ireland, northern Germany and Denmark. These bodies perfectly preserved by using  tanning properties of the acidic water, as well as antibiotic properties of the organic component sphagnan. A famous example is the Tollund Man in Denmark discovered in 1950
Other Benefits of
Peat include:

30. Peat is used to prevent soil compaction

31. Peat soil is free of pathogens

32. Peat soil, as opposed to untreated compost, is a suitable choice for seed starting since it hardly includes hazardous microbes such as weed seeds or toxic bacteria.

33. Peat soil holds moisture. The organic elements in peat soil trap moisture, making it a helpful supplement for drier soil types like sandy soil.

34. Peat soil has an acidic pH:
Peat soil has a low pH and can enhance soil conditions in alkaline soils, particularly for plants that prefer more significant acidity levels, such as blueberries and azaleas.

PEAT MOSS
 Sphagnum moss, also called peat moss, is one of the most common components and constituent of peat, although many other plants can contribute to peat formation. The biological features of sphagnum mosses act to create a habitat aiding peat formation, a phenomenon termed ‘habitat manipulation’. 
Sphagnum peat moss is an aquatic plant that floats on the surface of waterways such as the edges of ponds. Over time it builds up a thick carpet of the stuff, providing growing space for other riparian plants, or plants that grow along the edge of water. As the peat plant matures, the older material dies but new peat grows on top. This leads to a thick layer of both dead and live peat moss.

Peat moss can be harvested from bogs, fens, or peatlands and introduced into a water body to produce peat. The primary areas of the world where they are harvested is in Canada and Russia.
Peat moss are usually too acidic for non-acid-loving plants, they are non renewable and not sustainable, they lack nutrient content, attracts bugs such as fungus gnats when decaying and after it dries out, it takes a while to reabsorb water.
Peat moss is ideal for plants and fruits that require an acidic climate due to its low pH. Blueberries, heathers, azaleas, camellias, tomatoes, and other plants fall under this category.

MATERIALS THAT DECOMPOSE TO FORM PEAT
PEAT materials accumulated under conditions of waterlogging, oxygen deficiency, high acidity and nutrient deficiency and decompose partially to form peat.
In temperate, boreal and sub-arctic regions, where low temperatures (below freezing for long periods during the winter) reduce the rate of decomposition, peat is formed mainly from bryophytes (mostly sphagnum mosses), herbs, shrubs and small trees.
In the lowland humid tropics, peat is derived mostly from rain forest trees (leaves, branches, trunks and roots) under near constant annual high temperatures.
In other geographical regions, peat can be formed from other species of plants that are able to grow in water-saturated conditions. For example, in New Zealand peat is formed from members of the Restionaceae while in tropical coastal fringes peat is formed in mangrove. New types of peat may still be found in other areas of the world
PEAT FORMATION
Over time, the formation of peat is often the first step in the geological formation of fossil fuels such as coal, particularly low-grade coal such as lignite.
It has being reported that Peat extraction rate in industrialized countries exceeds its slow regrowth rate of 1 mm (0.04 in) per year, and as it is also reported that peat regrowth takes place only in 30–40% of peatlands, this has resulted in loss of peat lands.
Apart from this, centuries of burning and draining of peat by humans has released a significant amount of CO2 into the atmosphere, and much peatland restoration is needed to help limit climate change.
“Peatification” is influenced by several factors, including the nature of the plant material deposited, the availability of nutrients to support bacterial life, the availability of oxygen, the acidity of the peat, and temperature. Peats are formed in wetlands and other places. Some wetlands result from rise in groundwater levels, whereas some elevated bogs are the result of heavy rainfall. Although the rate of plant growth in cold regions is very slow, this also result in very slow rate of organic matter decomposition. Plant material decomposes more rapidly in groundwater rich in nutrients than in elevated bogs with heavy rainfall. The presence of oxygen (aerobic conditions) is necessary for fungal and microbial activity that promotes decomposition, but peat is formed in waterlogged soils with little or no access to oxygen (anaerobic conditions), largely preventing the complete decomposition of organic material. All these are factors that affect peat formation.
Peat forms when plant material does not fully decay in acidic and anaerobic conditions. These plant materials are composed mainly of wetland vegetation, principally bog plants including mosses, sedges and shrubs. As the peats are formed, it accumulates and hold more water. This slowly creates wetter conditions that allow the area of wetland to expand. This peatification process do result in another process known as the hydrosere process. A hydrosere process, also known as hydrarch or aquatic succession, is the ecological succession that occurs in aquatic environments like ponds and lakes, gradually transforming a water body into a terrestrial ecosystem like a woodland, through the accumulation of sediments and organic matter, eventually leading to the establishment of land vegetation on the previously open water area. It is essentially the process of a water body filling in and becoming land over time. Hydrosere process begins in open water and progresses through fen phases impacted by nutrient-rich groundwater (and rainfall) to a bog that obtains nutrients and water supplies exclusively from rainfall.

FEATURES OF PEAT LANDS

1. Peatland features can include ponds, ridges and raised bogs.

2.  Some bog plants are characterised to actively promote bog formation. For example, sphagnum mosses actively secrete tannins, which preserve organic material.

3. Sphagnum also have special water-retaining cells, known as hyaline cells, which can release water ensuring the bogland remains constantly wet which helps promote peat production.
4. Peat usually accumulates slowly at the rate of about a millimetre per year.

5. Peat land is characterized by the accumulation and store of dead organic matter from Sphagnum and many other non-moss species under conditions of almost permanent water saturation.

6. Peatlands are adapted to the extreme conditions of high water and low oxygen content, of toxic elements and low availability of plant nutrients.

7. The peatland and peat water chemistry varies from alkaline to acidic.

8. Peat material is either fibric, hemic, or sapric. Fibric peats are the least decomposed and consist of intact fibre. Hemic peats are partially decomposed and sapric are the most decomposed.

9. Phragmites peat are composed of reed grass, Phragmites australis, and other grasses. It is denser than many other types of peat.

10. Engineers may describe a soil as peat which has a relatively high percentage of organic material. This soil is problematic because it exhibits poor  consolidation  properties. It cannot be easily compacted to serve as a stable foundation to support loads, such as roads or buildings.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECOLOGICAL ISSUES PERTAINING TO PEAT AND PEAT LANDS

1. The Ecological conditions of peat wetlands is conducive as an habitat for fauna and flora. For example, some crane nests are found in aboundance in several peat wetland areas like whooping cranes nest in North American peatlands and Siberian cranes nest in the West Siberian peatland.  Palsa mires have a rich bird life. In Canada, riparian peat banks are used as maternity sites for polar bears. Natural peatlands also have many species of wild orchids and carnivorous plants.

2. Around half of the area of northern peatlands is  permafrost ( A ground that remains frozen for at least two years, and is made up of soil, sand, rocks, and ice. It’s found in cold climates, like the Arctic and the poles)-affected, and this area represents around a tenth of the total permafrost area, and also a tenth (185 ± 66 Gt) of all permafrost carbon, equivalent to around half of the carbon stored in the atmosphere. Dry peat is a good insulator (with a thermal conductivity of around 0.25 Wm−1K−1) and therefore plays an important role in protecting permafrost from thaw. The insulating effect of dry peat also makes it integral to unique permafrost landforms such as palsas and permafrost peat plateaus.
 Peatland permafrost thaw tends to result in an increase in methane emissions and a small increase in carbon dioxide uptake, meaning that it contributes to the permafrost carbon feedback.
 Under 2 °C global warming, 0.7 million km2 of peatland permafrost could thaw, and with warming of +1.5 to 6 °C a cumulative 0.7 to 3 PgC of methane could be released as a result of permafrost peatland thaw by 2100. The forcing from these potential emissions would be approximately equivalent to 1% of projected anthropogenic emissions.

3. Peat is usually hand-cut, although progress has been made in the excavation and spreading of peat by mechanical methods. Peat may be cut by spade in the form of blocks, which are spread out to dry. When dry, the blocks weigh from 0.34 to 0.91 kg (0.75 to 2 pounds). In mechanized method, a dredger or excavator digs the peat from the drained bog and delivers it to a macerator (a device that softens and separates a material into its component parts through soaking), which extrudes the peat pulp through a rectangular opening. The pulp is cut into blocks, which are spread to dry. Maceration tends to yield more uniform shrinkage and a denser and tougher fuel. Hydraulic excavating can also be used, particularly in bogs that contain roots and tree trunks. The peat is washed down by a high-pressure water jet, and the pulp runs to a sump. There, after slight maceration, it is pumped to a draining ground in a layer, which, after partial drying, is cut up and dried further.

CLASSIFICATION OF PEATS
According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Classification, peat is an organic soil (Histosol) that contains a minimum of 20% organic matter increasing to 30% if as much as 60% of the mineral matter is clay. Other authorities have adopted definitions of peat with organic matter content higher than 30% and thickness greater than 30cm.
The types of peats are classified based on the following:
A. Types of peats based on the various layers formed.
Several types and grades of peat are available. The features of peat are determined by factors such as the depth, the extraction technique, and the peat location’s meteorological conditions. Here are the six peat types described below:

1. UPPER PEAT LAYER
The peat’s upper layer is the peat profile’s first ten inches. It is mostly alive and comprises of tall stems of sphagnum moss. Water flows readily through this zone. The top layer of peat has the drawback of not necessarily being homogeneous in the constitution.

2.. PEAT LITTER
Also known as peat dust, it is the unsheathed upper sheet of the peat profile. The result is pale brown and just slightly degraded. It can hold at least eight times its weight in water. The release of water and absorption is slower in this peat than in sphagnum peat moss. Peat litter comes in three sizes: coarse, fine, and normal. Its grade is determined by the extraction process utilised.

3. SPHAGNUM PEAT MOSS
Sphagnum peat moss is a novel, partly decayed sphagnum moss that holds 10-12 times its mass in water. With a pale hue, it is nearly entirely composed of several varieties of sphagnum moss. Since sphagnum peat moss is a comparatively newer organic substance, it degrades faster than older peat varieties. Sphagnum peat moss is currently the most common peat in high-quality potting mixes.

4. NON-PERMAFROST BLACK PEAT
Also referred to as champ peat, old peat, and casing soil peat, this peat type is not ideal for potting soil because it significantly shrinks when dried and has lower retention qualities. It creates pressed peat or hard peat used as fuel when properly dried.

5. COLOURED PEAT
Also called grey peat, it derives from the sheet between the black and white layers of peat. This level has decayed more than the white layer, and its hue lies between black and white peat. They hold less water than peat litter and sphagnum moss peat.

6. GARDEN PEAT
It is an essential source of potting soil and is made by freezing, moist black peat. The frozen state of the garden peat determines its quality. Freezing the black peat increases its water-retaining properties and decreases its shrinking properties.

After drying, garden peat may absorb at least four times its weight in water. Being dark brown in colour indicates that it has proceeded to an advanced level of decomposition. It has lower air content since it is made up of very small particles.

B. Peats may be divided into several types based on their macroscopic, microscopic, and chemical characteristics. These types include:

1. fibric,

2. coarse hemic,

3. hemic,

4. fine hemic, and

5. sapric,
Peat may be distinguished from lower-ranked coals on the basis of four characteristics:

1. Peats generally contain free cellulose, more than 75 percent moisture,

2. Peats containing free cellulose less than 60 percent carbon,

3. Peats that can be cut with a knife.

4. The transition of peat to brown coal which takes place slowly and is usually reached at depths ranging from 100 to 400 metres (approximately 330 to 1,300 feet).
These lower-rank coals include; lignite and subbituminous coal. 

OVER EXPLOITATION OF PEATLANDS
For generations, peatlands have been under threat. They are either drained to create a place for fertile grazing and agriculture, or they are damaged by peat extraction for electricity. When peatlands are drained, their peat is exposed to air and emits carbon dioxide 20 times quicker than sequestered.

PEATLAND RESTORATION, PROTECTION, MANAGEMENT AND REHABILITATION.
Different forms of management are used to conserve peats and peatland and this management might provide different results. Grazing and burning, for example, may play a beneficial role in the long-term management of peatlands maintained for nature. However, drainage and peat cutting can have a substantial influence on peatlands, resulting in irreversible damage to the peatland site.
Another management practices used for peat and peatland is conservation practices. Peatland conservation begins with site hydrology management, which helps to limit greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide. Depending on the starting point, peatland areas may require drain blockage to rewet them, utilising several techniques such as peat dams, plastic piling and bunding, plantation removal, pollution management, sphagnum transfer, and/or control of grazing, burning, water quantity and quality.
In the case of restoration of already degraded peatlands,
peatland restoration can be done by blocking drainage channels in the peatland, and allowing natural vegetation to recover.
 Rehabilitation projects undertaken in North America and Europe usually focus on the rewetting of peatlands and revegetation of native species. This acts to mitigate carbon release in the short term before the new growth of vegetation provides a new source of organic litter to fuel the peat formation in the long term.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF PEAT IN THE ENVIRONMENT

1. Mass volumes of stored carbon dioxide are released when peat is harvested, contributing to greenhouse gas levels.

2. Peat are banned in certain areas. Peat must be moist to be healthy and operate properly. Its exploitation for human use, dries the peat, causing the environment to deteriorate.

3. PEAT DRAINAGE:
Large areas of organic wetland (peat) soils are currently drained for agriculture, forestry and peat extraction (i.e. through canals) purposes. This process is taking place all over the world. This not only destroys the habitat of many species but also result in heavy fuels climate change. As a result of this peat drainage, organic carbon built for thousands of years underwater is suddenly exposed to the air. This result in the organic matter decompositon, turning it into carbon dioxide (CO2), which is released into the atmosphere. Thus, resulting in climate change.
 The global CO2 emissions from drained peatlands have increased from 1,058 Mton in 1990 to 1,298 Mton in 2008 (a 20% increase) and still continue to increase till date. This can be noticed in developing countries like Indonesia, Malaysia and Papua with New Guinea being the fastest-growing top emitters. This estimate excludes emissions from peat fires (conservative estimates amount to at least 4,000 Mton/CO2-eq./yr for south-east Asia). With 174 Mton/CO2-eq./yr, the EU is after Indonesia (500 Mton) and before Russia (161 Mton), the world’s second-largest emitter of drainage-related peatland CO2 (excl. extracted peat and fires). Total CO2 emissions from the worldwide degradation of peatland may exceed 2.0 Gtons (including emissions from peat fires), which is almost 6% of all global carbon emissions. With this, climate change and greenhouse gas emissions increases.

4. PEAT FIRES: Peat can be a major fire hazard and cannot be extinguished by light rain. Peat fires may burn for great lengths of time, or smoulder underground and reignite after winter in temperate region or during hammattan in tropical region if an oxygen source is present.

Peat has a high carbon content and can burn under low moisture conditions. Once ignited by the presence of a heat source (e.g., a wildfire penetrating the subsurface), it smoulders. These smouldering fires can burn undetected for very long periods of time (months, years, and even centuries) propagating in a creeping fashion through the underground peat layer.

Despite the damage that the burning of raw peat can cause, bogs are naturally subject to wildfires. These wildfires can keep competitive woody plants from lowering the water table and shading out many bog plants. Several families of plants including the carnivorous Sarracenia (trumpet pitcher),  Dionaea (Venus flytrap),  Utricularia  (bladderworts) and non-carnivorous plants such as the sandhills lily, toothache grass and many species of orchid in the bog becomes threatened and in some cases become endangered from the combined forces of human drainage, negligence and absence of fire.
Most wildfires occurring in countries all over the world like
the recent burning of peat bogs in Indonesia, the 1997, peat and forest fires in Indonesia, peat fires in Kalimantan and East Sumatra, peat fires in North America from boreal forests in Canada to swamps and fens in the subtropical southern Florida Everglades etc result in destruction of wetland and wildlife resources.
These burning result in burning of hollows in the peat, hummocks desiccated which contribute to Sphagnum  recolonization. Thousands of houses are burnt like the high heat wave that occur from Central Russia to the capital of Moscow with a toxic smoke blanket during the 2010 summer period.
 These peat fires are linked to climate change, as they are much more likely to occur nowadays due to this effect.

5. EROSION (PEAT HAGS)
Peat “hags” are a form of erosion that occur at the sides of gullies that cut into the peat. They sometimes also occur in isolation. Hags may result when flowing water cuts downwards into the peat and when fire or overgrazing exposes the peat surface. Once the peat is exposed in these ways, it is prone to further erosion by wind, water and livestock. The result is overhanging vegetation and peat. Hags are too steep and unstable for vegetation to establish itself, so they continue to erode unless restorative action is taken.

6. PROTECTION: The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity highlights peatlands as key ecosystems to be conserved and protected. The convention requires governments at all levels to present action plans for the conservation and management of wetland environments. Wetlands are also protected under the 1971 Ramsar Convention.
In June 2002, the United Nations Development Programme launched the Wetlands Ecosystem and Tropical Peat Swamp Forest Rehabilitation Project. This project was targeted to last for five years, and brings together the efforts of various non-government organisations.
In November 2002, the International Peatland (formerly Peat) Society (IPS) and the International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) published guidelines on the “Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands – Backgrounds and Principles including a framework for decision-making”. This publication aims to develop mechanisms that can balance the conflicting demands on the global peatland heritage to ensure its wise use to meet the needs of humankind.
In June 2008, the IPS published the book Peatlands and Climate Change, summarising the currently available knowledge on the topic. In 2010, IPS presented a “Strategy for Responsible Peatland Management”, which can be applied worldwide for decision-making

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