As it is said that biology does not respect borders , so do diseases, pests and pathogens spread are no respecter of any environment and country.
Strong quarantine measures with geographic Isolation coupled with world class research can protect crops and animals including human that consume them from some of the serious impacts posed by pests, diseases and pathogens that are circulating all over the world. The health of every living creatures and non creatures such as human, animals and plants and their environment are connected, therefore, disease transmission is inevitable.
Good biosecurity should be practised at all times, not just during a disease outbreak but before the outbreak should occur. Taking the right measures in the early stages of an outbreak, can help prevent or reduce it’s spread.
Biosecurity is a set of policies and practices that aim to prevent the spread of harmful organisms (e.g. viruses, bacteria, and pathogens etc.) and protect people, animals, plants, and the environment. It can also be defined as the act of protecting human, animals and livelihood from infectious diseases. This prevention practices can be intentionally or unintentionally carried out. Biosecurity, a holistic approach to safety, include policies and regulations to protect humans, food, agriculture, and the environment from potential biological threats intended to harm innovations, standards, and practices that are utilized to secure pathogens, poisons, and delicate advancements from unapproved access, abuse, theft, or deliberate discharge. The term also includes biological threats to people, including those from pandemic diseases and bioterrorism.
For example, in agriculture, biosecurity is aimed at protecting food crops and livestock from pests, invasive species, and other organisms not conducive to the welfare of the human population.
Another example is the COVID-19 pandemic. It is a recent example of a threat for which biosecurity measures have been needed in all countries of the world.
A decent biosecurity program should be provided to address the danger of introducing new infections or disease entry and spread on a farm, stable, in a home or country.
Biosecurity encompasses a range of physical structures, equipment, and protocols that are designed to reduce the risk of harmful pathogens entering the farm and causing disease outbreak. All entry to animal farm must have a detailed biosecurity plan that protect the health and safety of the animals. The term includes biological threats to people, including those from pandemic diseases and bioterrorism.

DIFFERENT DEFINATION OF BIOSECURITY BY DIFFERENT COUNTRIES AND ORGANIZATIONS
Various disciplines, professions, organizations and countries have different definitions for the term “biosecurity”. The definition have sometimes been broadened to embrace other concepts, and it is used for different purposes in different contexts. The term was first used by the agricultural and environmental communities to describe various preventive measures taken against threats from naturally occurring diseases and pests. Later the term expanded to introduced species.
In 2010, Australia and New Zealand incorporated this definition within their legislation.
In 2001, the United State National Association of State Departments of Agriculture (NASDA) defined biosecurity as “the sum of risk management practices in defense against biological threats”, and its main goal as “protect(ing) against the risk posed by disease and organisms”.
In 2006, the National Academy of Sciences defined biosecurity as “security against the inadvertent, inappropriate, or intentional malicious or malevolent use of potentially dangerous biological agents or biotechnology, including the development, production, stockpiling, or use of biological weapons as well as outbreaks of newly emergent and epidemic disease”.
In Encyclopedia of Microbiology (Third Edition), 2009. Biosecurity was defined as the process of keeping potentially dangerous  microorganisms out of the hands of individuals who want to use them for nefarious purposes.
In 2010, the World Health Organization (WHO), in her information note describe biosecurity as a strategic and integrated approach to analysing and managing relevant risks to human, animal and plant life and health and associated risks for the environment. In another document, it describes the aim of biosecurity being “to enhance the ability to protect human health, agricultural production systems, and the people and industries that depend on them”, with the overarching goal being “to prevent, control and/or manage risks to life and health as appropriate to the particular biosecurity sector”.
In the US, the National Science Advisory Board on Biosecurity was created in 2004 to provide biosecurity oversight of “dual-use research”, defined as “biological research.
In Veterinary Medicine (Eleventh Edition), 2017.
Biosecurity was defined as “the outcome of all activities undertaken by an entity to preclude the introduction of disease agents into an area that one is trying to protect.”. Biosecurity was further defined as the intended result of efforts to protect animals and humans from disease-causing materials of biological origin.
Veterinarians traditionally view biosecurity as the set of management practices to protect animals – livestock or others of economic value – against microbial threat, some of which may be inadvertently introduced by humans. “Biosecurity” takes on an entirely different meaning in international political agreements such as the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention of 1975. Here, biosecurity was refered to as measures to prevent the research and development of microorganisms or their products for hostile purposes. And it is not too far a reach to think of biosecurity as the prevention of infectious disease – and specifically communicable infectious disease – in humans.
The National Academies of Science define biosecurity as ‘security against the inadvertent, inappropriate, or intentional malicious or malevolent use of potentially dangerous biological agents or biotechnology, including the development, production, stockpiling, or use of biological weapons as well as outbreaks of newly emergent and epidemic disease’.
And lastly, the US Department of Health and Human Services  defined biosecurity as the protection, control of, and accountability for high-consequence biological agents and toxins and critical relevant biological materials and information within laboratories to prevent unauthorized possession, loss, theft, misuse, diversion, or intentional release.

GOALS OF BIOSECURITY

1. Reduce the risk of infectious diseases spreading to and among livestock

2. Protect food, agriculture, and the environment from biological threats

3. Prevent the theft or abuse of pathogens, poisons, and other sensitive advancements

PRINCIPLES OF BIOSECURITY

1. BIO-EXCLUSION: Preventing outside agents from entering a facility and spreading among the animal population

2. BIO-MANAGEMENT: Preventing the spread of disease within a facility
These two biosecurity principles can further be divided into the following biosecurity subprinciples:
a. ISOLATION: Confinement of animals in controlled environments to exclude disease vectors
b. SANITATION: Measures to ensure cleanliness
c. TRAFFIC CONTROL: Measures to control the movement of people and animals
d. MANURE TREATMENT: Measures to treat animal waste
e. DISINFECTANTS: Measures to use disinfectants to prevent the spread of disease

BENEFITS OF BIOSECURITY

1. Protects the health of animals: Biosecurity is a proven method that can help to promote the health of flock.

2. Protects the safety of food,

3. Prevents the spread of exotic diseases.

4. Limits the spread of endemic diseases.

5. Biosecurity is a measures taken to protect livestock from harmful biological agents, like viruses, bacteria, parasites, etc.

6. Biosecurity is the cheapest and most effective means of disease control available.

COMPONENTS OF BIOSECURITY
In general, there are three major components of biosecurity. They include:

1. Isolation

2. Traffic Control

3. Sanitation

1. Isolation refers to the confinement of animals within a controlled environment.

2. Traffic control is not only about the supply of birds and goods, but also about the visits of people to the farm and the traffic patterns within the farm.

3. Sanitation addresses the cleaning and disinfection of materials, equipment and people entering the farm, and the “clean” way of working on the farm.

SOME BIOSECURITY MEASURES
Agriculturist, biologist, laboratories, and countries etc uses various biosecurity measures to counter biosecurity risks. Such biosecurity measures include compulsory terms such as;

a. QUARANTINE: These are put in place by countries to minimise the risk of invasive pests or diseases arriving at a specific location that could damage crops and livestock as well as the wider environment.
Quarantine simply means separating newly arrived animals from the main farm.
The term is today taken to include managing biological threats to people, industries or environment. These may be from foreign or endemic organisms ( organisms that are consistently present but limited to a particular region), but they can also extend to pandemic diseases (this is when a new disease or new strain of an existing disease spreads worldwide. For example, Viral respiratory diseases, such as new influenza viruses or COVID-19 ) and the threat of bioterrorism, both of which pose threats to public health.
b. BIOEXCLUSION: Preventing the introduction of disease by keeping out new pathogens
c. BIOCONTAINMENT: Preventing the spread of disease within or between groups of animals
d. GOOD HYGIENE: Maintaining good hygiene practices
e. SEGREGATION OF SPECIES: Separating different species of animals
f. PROTECTION FROM WILD ANIMALS AND INSECTS: Protecting animals from wild animals and insects
g. WASTE MANAGEMENT: Managing waste appropriately
h. STRUCTURAL BIOSECURITY: Designing the farm layout, perimeter fencing, drainage, and more
i. DISINFECTING: Cleaning equipment and vehicles
j. RESTRICTING ACCESS: Limiting access to agricultural fields
k. STERILIZING: Regularly sterilizing lab equipment
L. BIOSAFETY LEVELS: Implementing biosafety levels in microbiology laboratories.

Some ways employed to ensure that these measures are effective to promote biosecurity on the farm include:
a. Restrict access to the farm and flocks. It is important to keep out disease from the outside surrounding.
b. Limit the number of people that come in contact with the farm flocks. All visitors should always sanitize their hands and clean their shoes properly. They should be provided with clean company shoes, clothes and footbath before visiting in the farm.
c. Limit any possible contact with wild birds as they can carry disease. This is especially true for migratory waterfowl. When the birds have outdoor access, keep them in a screened area that prevents them from any contact with wild birds.
d. Keep predators and rodents out. Enclose all flock properly and consider closing the facilities available during the nighttime.
e. Fences should be buried deep enough to ensure that predators like foxes, snakes, rodents, badgers and coyotes etc do not get in.
f. Have a proper rodent and pest control scheme in place, monitor your traps daily.
g. Provide proper nighttime housing, with proper ventilation. It should be attractive for the livestock to spend the night.
h. Keeping things clean
i. Always keep livestock feed and water clean.
j. Keep an eye on the bedding in the livestock pen. Birds for example are often consuming things off the ground, which could result in ingesting harmful parasites, bacteria or viruses that may have come from an infected bird. Always remove wet bedding and replace it with fresh dry bedding. This also includes when bedding smells bad, is damp or has become dirty. Examples can be found in birds carrying Marek’s disease and the Avian Influenza virus that can be spread through contact with droppings.
k. Regular cleaning helps to prevent the spread of diseases. Apply disinfectant when cleaning the pen. Disinfectants are not effective if they are applied over caked on dirt, manure, or bedding.

l. Vehicles, clothing and other equipment can all carry disease. When the farmer and his farm workers have been in contact with other livestock and birds, they should ensure that any items that could have been in contact with the flocks are cleaned thoroughly.
m. Footwear (shoes, boots, clogs) can be a major source of transferring disease. Always wash and disinfect all shoes before coming in contact with livestock like poultry.
n. After visiting another farm, farmers should make sure that they take a shower and change all their clothes before visiting their own livestock again.
o. When introducing new animal into an existing flock, isolate them first, to check if they have not picked up any new disease.
p. Try to prevent mixing species. Especially turkeys are rather susceptible to fowl diseases.
q. Limit visitors entering the barns

r. Try to limit exchanges in equipment, tools or supplies with other farmers. As diseases can be easily spread by sharing. When sharing is necessary, make sure to clean and disinfect before and after it reaches another property.
s. Never share items that cannot be properly cleaned, such as wooden pallets, fresh litter and cardboard egg cartons. etc

VARIOUS AREAS OF THE ENVIRONMENT THAT REQUIRES BIOSECURITY MEASURES.

1. Animal biosecurity: Any disease outbreak or pest and pathogen infestation can pose a risk to farm animals, other animals, humans, or the safety and quality of a food product. Thus, need for biosecurity. Animal biosecurity is the practice of preventing the spread of disease among animals and to humans. Such animals may be land, aquatic and arboreal animals. It involves a combination of physical and management measures to reduce the risk of disease introduction, establishment, and spread.
It encompasses the prevention and containment of various disease agents in a specific area in the farm.
Biocontainment refers to the control of disease agents already present in a particular area and work to prevent transmission. It works to improve specific immunity towards already present pathogens.
Animal biosecurity may protect organisms from infectious agents or noninfectious agents such as toxins or pollutants, and can be executed in areas as large as a nation or as small as a local farm.
Animal biosecurity takes into account the following:
a. Epidemiological triad for disease occurrence
b. The individual host,
c. The disease, and
d. The environment contributing to disease susceptibility.
The best practices any livestock farmer can emback upon to prevent disease transmission from his animals to himself is through avoidance or segregation. But for animals that are imported and exported across states and country borders, biosecurity measures are needed to reduce unavoidable risk.

TYPES OF ANIMAL BIOSECURITY
The are three Levels or types of Biosecurity of Animals
-Conceptual Biosecurity
-Structural Biosecurity and
-Procedural Biosecurity.
These are the three components of biosecurity program in livestock rearing. These components are directed at preventing infectious disease transmission within and across farms, companies, facilities, regions, countries, and continents.

CONCEPTUAL BIOSECURITY OF ANIMALS: This is the primary level of biosecurity. It is a biosecurity carried out around the location of animal facilities and their various components. The most effective method to reduce risk is by physical isolation. When facilities are to be erected on farms, farmers should give consideration to biosecurity measures around the facilities or farms. These facilities/farms should not be located in close proximity to other farms or public roads, especially when the area has a high density of animal facilities or next to slaughterhouses, live-animal markets, agricultural fairs, or animal exhibits. Other isolation methods that can be used include limiting the use of common vehicles and facilities; limiting access by personnel not directly involved with the operation; and controlling the spread of disease by vermin, wild animals, and wind.

STRUCTURAL BIOSECURITY OF ANIMALS: This is a secondary level of biosecurity. It involves providing physical factors such as farm layout, perimeter fencing, drainage, number/location of changing rooms, presence of showers, air filtration systems, enclosed load-outs, and housing design on the farm.

PROCEDURAL BIOSECURITY OF ANIMALS: This is a tertiary level of biosecurity. It involves routine procedures used to prevent introduction (bioexclusion) and spread (biocontainment) of infection within a facility. For examples, taking a shower or changing footwear and personal clothes with farm-dedicated clothes before entry into the farm, washing hands, and disinfecting equipment at the point of entry.

2. HUMAN HEALTH
Direct threats to human health may come in the form of epidemics or pandemics, such as the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic and other influenza epidemics, MERS, SARS, or the COVID-19 pandemic, or they may be deliberate attacks (bioterrorism). Therefore, biosecurity is a measure used to protect human health by preventing the spread of harmful organisms, such as viruses and bacteria, that can cause disease.
It prevent the introduction of pathogens into new environments and reduce the spread of pathogens that are already present. It also protect food crops and livestock from pests and diseases that could harm humans.

In the case of bioterrorism, biosecurity measures protect against biological threats that could be used for terrorism. It also protects the environment and other living things.
The country/federal and/or state health departments are usually responsible for managing the control of outbreaks and transmission and the supply of information to the public.

3. MEDICAL COUNTERMEASURES

Medical countermeasures (MCMs) are products such as biologics and pharmaceutical drugs that can protect from or treat the effects of a chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear (CBRN) attack or in the case of public health emergencies. Or MCMs can be refered to as a biosecurity tool used to protect against or treat the effects of a biological, chemical, radiological, or nuclear (CBRN) attack. MCMs can also be used to diagnose and prevent symptoms associated with CBRN attacks or threats.
Some examples of medical countermeasures used as a biosecurity measures include:
Vaccines, antimicrobials,
antibody preparations,
ventilators, and personal protective equipments.
ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN SETTING BIOSECURITY STANDARDS
Various international organisations, international bodies and legal instruments and agreements make up a worldwide governance framework for biosecurity.
Some of these organisations include : the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) and the Commission on Phytosanitary Measures (CPM) whom have developed standards that have become international reference points through the World Trade Organization (WTO)’s Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement), created in 1995. This agreement requires all members of the WTO to consider all import requests concerning agricultural products from other countries. These measures covered by the agreement aim at the protection of human, animal or plant life or health from certain risks.

Other important global and regional agreements include the International Health Regulations (IHR, 2005), the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC), the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, the Codex Alimentarius, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT, 1947).

The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and WHO are the most important organisations associated with biosecurity.

The IHR is a legally binding agreement on 196 nations, including all member states of WHO. Its purpose and scope is “to prevent, protect against, control, and provide a public health response to the international spread of disease in ways that are commensurate with and restricted to public health risks and that avoid unnecessary interference with international traffic and trade”, “to help the international community prevent and respond to acute public health risks that have the potential to cross borders and threaten people worldwide”.

In conclusion, biosecurity is an important part of keeping farm animals and human safe and healthy. An effective biosecurity program will have its positive impact on the economic performance of the flock. As mentioned above, simple measures such as cleaning carefully and regularly, limiting contact from visitors, and being careful not to bring disease home can be taken to promote biosecurity on the farm. Biosecurity is crucial to the success of any farming operation.

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Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata), belongs to the brassica family (also called cruciferae family) or mustard family (Brassicaceae). It is a leafy green vegetable and a fodder plant that comes in a variety of colours such as: green, white, purple and red. It is a biennial plant grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It descend from the wild cabbage (B. oleracea var. oleracea), a member of the “cole crops” or brassicas, meaning it is closely related to broccoli and cauliflower (var. botrytis); Brussels sprouts (var. gemmifera); radishes; and Savoy cabbage (var. sabauda).
Cabbage, been grown around the world for thousands of years is a common ingredient in many dishes, such as salad, kimchi and sauerkraut. It has a long history of medicinal use. Different references had stated its uses for the prevention of drunkenness, headache, stomach ailments, and even cancer.
DESCRIPTION OF CABBAGE
Cabbage is a dense, leafy vegetable. While it looks similar to a head of lettuce, it’s actually a member of the “cruciferous” vegetable group that includes broccoli, kale, radishes, Brussel sprouts, and more.  
All cabbages have heads formed from tightly packed leaves. There are many distinct head types, the most common being: Wakefield (with small, early, white, pointed heads; for fresh market), Red (leaf surfaces are pigmented, medium very firm, round heads; for fresh market and storage); Ballhead or Danish (round, very firm heads, light green leaves; for fresh market and storage); Savoy (some authorities designate this Brassica oleracea var. sabauda) (round, loose heads with crinkled or blistered leaves; for fresh market and storage).
Its leaves can be either crinkled or smooth.

BENEFITS OF CABBAGE
Cabbage, like other cruciferous vegetables, is packed with a lot of benefits.

1. It is rich in vitamins and minerals that the human body needs. It is packed with;
Vitamin K: 56% of Daily Value (DV)
Vitamin C: 36% DV
Folate (B9): 10% DV
Manganese: 6%
Vitamin B6: 6% DV
Thiamin (B1): 5% DV
Pantothenic Acid (B5): 4% DV
Calcium: 3% DV
Magnesium: 3% DV
Potassium: 3% DV
Riboflavin (B2): 3% DV
Vitamin A (IU): 3% DV

2. It is low in calories.

3. It is often referred to as a superfood due to its impressive nutritional content. One cup of cabbage contains:
Calories: 22
Total fat: 0.1 g
Cholesterol: 0 mg
Sodium: 16 mg
Total carbs: 5.2 g
Dietary fiber: 2.2 g
Sugar: 2.8 g
Added sugar: 0 g
Protein: 1.1 g
Apart from these, it also contain salt, and sugar, some fiber and protein as well.

4. IMPROVED DIGESTION: Foods that contain  fiber  are an important part of a balanced diet and support a healthy digestive system. The fiber found in cabbage can help improve the digestive system and promote regular bowel movements.
In addition, the soluble fiber in cabbage has been shown to increase the number of beneficial bacteria in the gut. This is because fiber is the main fuel source for friendly species like  Bifidobacteria  and  Lactobacilli. These bacteria perform important functions like protecting the immune system and producing critical nutrients like vitamins K2 and B12

5. Its protein  is considered a healthy alternative to protein from meats. 

6. CABBAGE IS A GREAT SOURCE OF ANTIOXIDANTS : These compounds help the body fight against free radicals- compounds that can damage the cells. Free radicals are thought to contribute to the development of diseases such as cancer, heart disease, and diabetes.
Antioxidants help reduce the free radicals in human body and help improve the immune system and fight  inflammation that can be damaging to the human body.

7. REDUCED INFLAMMATION: Inflammation is the way the body helps fight infection or speed up healing. However, chronic inflammation is thought to contribute to conditions such as heart disease, stroke, cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, and inflammatory bowel disease. The antioxidants in cabbage help reduce inflammation, which is linked to heart disease and also diseases linked to chronic inflammation. Cabbage also contains a substance called anthocyanins. It contains more than 36 different kinds of potent anthocyanins, making it an excellent choice for heart health.
Several studies have found these compounds as a substance that can lower blood pressure and reduce the risk of heart attack and stroke.
A research carried out in 2013 on 93,600 females, the findings prove that those with a higher intake of anthocyanin-rich foods had a lower risk of a heart attack. This had also been supported by another analysis involving 15 observational studies. The study reported that increased intake of flavonoids was associated with a significantly lower risk of dying from heart disease.
Finally, while too much  sodium in the diet is linked to heart disease, the potassium in cabbage helps the body get rid of excess sodium through the urine. 
It is believed that the sulforaphane, kaempferol, and other antioxidants found in this cabbage plants are likely responsible for their anti-inflammatory effect.

8.  IMPROVED IMMUNE SYSTEM: The vitamin C found in cabbage is good for the body. Not only is it an antioxidant that fights free radicals, but it also helps to fight heart disease, cancer, and even common cold. Vitamin C also helps the body to absorb the iron it needs.

9. STRONGER BONES: Cabbage is loaded with vitamin K. This important vitamin helps the body fight the breakdown of bone and improves bone strength. It is believed that a lack of vitamin K can contribute to the development of osteoporosis and an increased risk of fractures, especially in older individuals.

10. MANAGING DIABETES: Because cabbage is low in carbohydrates and high in fiber, it’s a great choice for those living with diabetes as it can help keep blood sugar levels stable without dangerous spikes. 

11. Cabbage leaves have long been used as poultices for application to tumors, and even in modern times, they have been under investigation as a means for preventing or treating breast engorgement in nursing mothers.

12. Cabbage is can be eaten fresh, processed into a salad-like dish called coleslaw, boiled, or as a fermented and pickled product called sauerkraut. Cabbages are important as a fresh market crop as well as a processing crop in most parts of the world and rank in the top 10 vegetables in both sales and volume in North America and Europe.

13. Cabbage has very firm and small heads used for canning.

14. Cabbage also contains small amounts of other micronutrients, including vitamin A, iron, and riboflavin .

15. It is rich in vitamin B6 and folate, both of which are essential for many important processes in the body, including energy metabolism and the normal functioning of the nervous system.

16. In addition, cabbage is high in fiber and contains powerful antioxidants, including polyphenols and sulfur compounds .

17. CABBAGE IS PACKED WITH VITAMIN C: Vitamin C ( ascorbic acid), is a water-soluble vitamin that serves many important roles in the body.
It is needed to make collagen, a protein in the human body. Collagen gives structure and flexibility to the skin and is critical for the proper functioning of the bones, muscles, and blood vessels.
Also, vitamin C helps the body absorb non-heme iron majorly found in plant foods.

18. LOWER CHOLESTEROL LEVELS:
Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance found in every cell in human body. People with high cholesterol level tend to have an increased risk of heart disease, especially when they have elevated levels of LDL (bad) cholesterol.
Cabbage contains two substances that have been shown to decrease levels of LDL (bad) cholesterol ( soluble fiber and plant sterols) .
Soluble fiber can help lower LDL cholesterol levels by binding with cholesterol in the gut and keeping it from being absorbed into the blood.
In a reseach carried out in 2023. The meta-analysis showed a significant reduction in LDL and total cholesterol with soluble fiber supplementation. Cabbage is a good source of soluble fiber. About 40% of the fiber found in cabbage is soluble.
Plant sterols also called  phytosterols are substances in plants that are structurally similar to cholesterol, and they reduce LDL cholesterol by blocking the absorption of cholesterol in the digestive tract.
A research carried out in 2020 by the American Heart Association reveals that 2-3 grams of plant stanol esters a day reduced LDL cholesterol by 9-12%.

19. AN EXCELLENT SOURCE OF VITAMIN K: Vitamin K is a  fat-soluble vitamins that plays many important roles in the body, one of which is blood clotting.
There are two types of vitamins K: Vitamin K1 and K2.
Vitamin K1 (phylloquinone): This is found primarily in plant. While,
Vitamin K2 (menaquinone): This form is found in animals and some fermented foods. It is also produced by bacteria in the large intestine.
Vitamin K1 plays many important roles in the body. Such roles include; It act as a cofactor for enzymes that are responsible for clotting the blood.
Without vitamin K, the blood would lose its ability to clot properly, increasing the risk of excessive bleeding.

20. CABBAGE JUICE: Cabbage can be processed into juice. The juice is loaded with nutrients, such as vitamins C and K, and drinking it is linked to many purported benefits, including weight loss, improved gut health, decreased inflammation, balanced hormones, and body detoxification. It is also high in antioxidants etc. It performs all the benefits listed above except that it is a juice. Apart from the above, the juice also reduced risk of lymphoma in women.

21.  Cabbage contains beta carotene, a precursor to vitamin A. Studies show drinking its juice results in better absorption of beta carotene, compared with eating whole cabbage
THE NEGATIVE SIDE OF CABBAGE
While cabbage offers lots of health benefits from the vitamins, minerals and compunds found in it, It also have some downside to eating it. 

1. Cruciferous vegetables like cabbage can cause gas, bloating and diarrhea. It’s best to slowly introduce these vegetables into the diet and gradually increase it’s intake. Individuals with sensitive digestive tracts might want to limit cabbage or talk to their doctor. 

2. If placed on a blood thinner such as Warfarin, patients should discuss with their doctor before increasing their intake of cabbage. The vitamin K in cabbage can interfere with the effectiveness of blood thinning medications. 

3. HIGH AMOUNTS MAY AFFECT THE THYROID:
Some evidence suggests that consuming cabbage in high amounts may affect thyroid. Substances called  goitrogens in cabbage can inhibit iodine transport to the thyroid, a process necessary for normal thyroid function.
In additon, goitrogens are found in higher amounts in raw cabbage, so those with thyroid conditions, such as hypothyroidism, may choose to avoid consuming cabbage juice.

4. CERTAIN NUTRIENTS CAN INTERACT WITH MEDICATIONS:
Some nutrients in cabbage juice have been shown to interact with certain medications. Cabbage is rich in vitamin K, which can affect the ability of blood thinners like warfarin to prevent blood clots. It is typically advised to maintain a consistent vitamin K intake while on the medication.

5. JUICING CABBAGE LEAVES MUCH OF THE FIBER BEHIND:
Juicing vegetables removes much of their  fiber  content. Fiber promotes feelings of fullness, maintain gut health, helps stabilize blood sugar, and can reduce cholesterol level. Due to the high fiber content, cruciferous vegetables like cabbage have been acknowledged for their ability to positively alter gut bacteria.
However, by juicing cabbage rather than eating it raw, this may reduce much of its fiber content.

6. MAY CAUSE ABDOMINAL DISCOMFORT IN SOME PEOPLE:
Some individuals may experience gut discomfort from drinking cabbage juice.
Cabbage is a common gas-producing vegetable. It is also high in fructans, a type of carb that individuals with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) often have, causing difficulty in time of digestion. Even with low intakes of cabbage, people with IBS may experience symptoms, such as bloating, abdominal pain, and diarrhea.

CABBAGE AS LIVESTOCK FEED
Cabbage can also be fed to livestock, such as cattle, pigs, rabbits, goats, and sheep. It is a nutritious, easily digestible crop that can help reduce animal feeding costs. In addition,  cabbage improves growth performance, improves carcass characteristics, improves pig health, can help manage diseases like white mold and black rot, and can help reduce environmental impact.
In a research study to determine the the effect of cabbage leaves as roughages on growth performance and bood biochemical parameters of rabbits, the study proved that cabbage leaves can be fed to growing rabbits as roughage source without any adverse effects on growth performance and blood biochemical parameters.
 However, cabbage also has adverse negative effect on some livestock when fed to them. It can cause digestive issues and poisoning if not fed properly. 
RISKS FACTORS OF FEEDING CABBAGE TO LIVESTOCK  

1. Can cause digestive issues

2. Can cause poisoning

3. Can cause bloating and gaseousness in sheep, which can be fatal

4. In cattle, it can cause rumen acidosis due to its high sugar content, haemolytic anaemia and goiter in livestock due to the high amino acid compund in the cabbage.

5. When lamb feed on immature cabbage leaves, a condition called photosensitisation results. This disorder is costly to treat and in acute condition, it leads to death.

6. Cabbage contains a component called glucosinolate. When fed to dairy cow, the component taints the milk produced. Therefore, to feed cabbage to livestock, the following must be ensured or carried out:

1. MONITOR THE ANIMALS:  Watch the animals for adverse reactions that can cause health issues like bloat, pneumonia and nitrate poisoning. 

2. INTRODUCE CABBAGE SLOWLY: Allow animals to graze in small amounts at first and if they are found reacting to the vegetable, withdraw immediately. Feeding ruminants slowly with cabbage will allow the rumen microbes adjust slowly to the roughage.

3. LIMIT DAIRY COWS:  Lactating dairy cows should only eat about 30% cabbage forage. 

7. MANAGE SULFUR: Cabbage waste is high in sulfur, so do not feed it to animals that already eat other high sulfur foods. 

8. FEED IN SMALL AMOUNTS: Feed cabbage waste in small amounts over a few days to prevent leachate. Excess feeding will make the animals reduce intake because of the high moisture content in the vegetable.

9. STORE PROPERLY: Cabbage are highly perishable vegetables. Therefore, their waste should be stored in a bunker silo where leachate can be collected. 

10. CABBAGE -FORAGE MIXTURE : It should be mixed with chopped hay or forages straws to limit seepage problems.

11. It should be wilted in the sun especially when fed to rabbits to prevent bloat.

12. Suppliment the cabbage with iodine, copper and iron to meet the dietary requirements and to prevent rumen acidosis, haemolytic anaemia and goiter in cattle. etc.

FORMS, TYPES OR VARIETIES OF CABBAGE
The different forms of cabbage include wild cabbage, brussels sprouts, cauliflower, broccoli, head cabbage, kale, and kohlrabi.

All forms of cabbage have succulent leaves that are free of hairs and covered with a waxy coating, which often gives the leaf surface a gray-green or blue-green colour. The common forms of cabbage may be classified according to the plant parts used for food and the structure or arrangement of their parts.
Some of the varieties of cabbage available in different parts of the world include:
Green cabbage, red cabbage, savoy cabbage, dutch white cabbage, conehead cabbage, kohlrabi, tuscan cabbage, january king cabbage, portuguese cabbage, brussels sprouts, earliana cabbage, golden acre cabbage, red acre cabbage and Chinese cabbages which include; bok choy (Brassica rapa, variety  chinensis) and napa cabbage  (B. rapa, variety  pekinensis) etc.

CABBAGE CULTIVATION REQUIREMENT
CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT
Cabbage is a cool season crop which requires an optimum growth temperatures range of 15- 20°C. Head formation reduced at temperatures higher than 25°C. It requires adequate amount of rainfall to growth. Moisture levels are especially critical during the early stage of the vegetables growth. If the levels are low, irrigation should be used to supplement and relieve the moisture stress.
SOIL TYPE
Not all soils are suitable for cabbage production. Clay soils or dark cotton soils are poorest for cabbage production. Soils with poor drainage, crack when dry, and flood when wet are poor for cabbage production. The best soil is loamy fertile soil, rich in organic matter, or sandy loam or loam which are well drained and with water retension capacity. Such soils have ability to supply water and nutrients to the cabbage.
Cabbage can thrive in soils with pH levels between 6.0-6.5.
Soil analysis are recommended for planting and accurate fertilization.
CHOOSING A VARIETY
While making a choice on the variety to produce, a farmer need to consider several key factors among the varieties. Such factors considered include: the maturity duration, yield potential, tolerance and resistance to pests and diseases, good field holding capacity, uniform maturity to ensure a single harvest and preference in the market among other qualities.

1. The variety must have wide market acceptability to others.

2. Must have the shortest maturity period ( 90 days).

3. Must have uniform maturity on farm. Not that some are big in size at harvest and others small in size. This will not make buyers to appreciate their non uniform size at harvest.

4. They must have good weight or maturity ( atleast 4kg at harvest).

5. They must be tolerant to hot and cold weather.

6. They must have good resistant to diseases especially black rot disease.

All cabbage varieties vary in size, weight, maturity period, colour and weather tolerant etc.
PLANTING
The best time to plant cabbage in the tropics is when the market supply is high such that harvesting coincides with the driest months. For example, if in 2 months time there will be complete dryness, then cabbage can be planted.
In dry months, vegetables are usually scarce, vegetable consumers only rely on dry season production. During this period, the demand for cabbage are usually high. When the demand is high, the price will also be high. If cabbage are planted in such that they coincide with rainy months, there will be glot and plenty of other vegetables in the market. Thus, reducing the demand and price.
Also, cabbage can be planted 2 months after the high price. For example, if prices are high in the month of January, cabbage can be planted 2 months after. Cabbage produced during this time attract high price especially when there is heavy rain that destroys vegetables. This is common in long rainy months.
Cabbage spend 4 months to get matured and harvested. If planted in April, it will be harvested in July. The best month to plant cabbage in the tropics is in April and November. Planting in November means that there will be little vegetables available in the market. So it can be harvested in January or early February during dry season. While in cool and temperate regions, the best time to plant cabbage in early spring or late summer/early autumn. This allows the plants to grow in cooler temperatures and avoid extreme heat or frost.

SPACING
Plant spacing is important and depends on the variety and the choice of the farmer based on the market demands. The wider the spacing, the bigger the cabbage that will be harvested and vice versa.
Varieties can be spaced at; 60cm x 60cm for large-headed varieties, 60cm x 45cm for medium sized and 30cm x 30cm for small heads. Also 50cm ×50cm spacing can be used.
An hectare of cabbage farm can produce between 11,000 heads to 12,000 heads.

NURSERY MANAGEMENT
Seedlings can be raised in nursery or plant seeds directly on raised beds in the field.
In the nursery, raised beds can be used to raise seedling. This is recommended for root development and proper drainage. The bed width can be 1 meter and a convenient length not exceeding 100 meters and a height of 15 centimeters is recommended.
In addition to nursery practices, the seeds should be sprayed and treated with:

1. Agrochemicals like trinity Gold (452WP)  to control soil borne diseases such Damping off.

2. Pesticides like loyalty( 700 WDG)  to control soil borne pests. And

3. Optimizer 20ml/20L to break seed dormancy and ensure uniform growth

TRANSPLANTING

Seedlings will be ready for transplanting after 4-6 weeks in the nursery, depending on temperatures. Seedlings should be irrigated to keep it wet an hour before transplanting. Seedlings should be planted to the same depth  as in the nursery 15cm. After transplanting, the soil should be drenched using Optimizer. Use Optimizer 10ml/20L to relieve transplanting shock and also to enhance the establishment of the veges. This will also help kill cutworms that can destroy the sea drinks.

FERTILIZATION

The amount of fertilizers to be applied will depend on the soil analysis report and soil type. During early stages a lot of Phosphorus is needed to help in root establishment which will be supplied by foliar feeding. During vegetative stage a lot of Nitrogen is needed and this is achieved through foliar feeding. During head formation potassium is needed to ensure proper head formation. These will help determine which nutrient is needed at the different stages of development.

WEED MANAGEMENT
Optimal production of these Brassica leafy vegetables depends on successful weed control. Weeds reduce yields by direct competition for nutrients, water, and light.
It is important to control weeds early in the season because, weed competition can substantially reduce vigor, uniformity, and overall yield.
Pre-emergence herbicide 2-3 days before transplanting can be sprayed to control weeds.

HARVESTING
Cabbage can be harvested any time after the heads form. For highest yield, cut the cabbage heads when they are solid (firm to hand pressure) but before they crack or split. When heads are mature, a sudden heavy rain may cause heads to crack or split wide open. The exposed internal tissue soon becomes unusable.

PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Cabbage is a host to several pests and diseases.

PEST MANAGEMENT
Some of the pests that attack cabbage include : diamond back month (DBM), aphids and cabbage saw fly etc.

1. DIAMONDBACK MOTH (Plutella xylostella): The larvae emerge from their mines at the conclusion of the first instar, molt beneath the leaf, and thereafter feed on the lower surface of the leaves.
CONTROL: Spray insecticides,
 2. CABBAGE LEAF SAWFLY   (Athalia rosae): Sawflies are sporadic but serious pests of brassicas. They are black/green caterpillars with a black head.
CONTROL: Spray insecticides like Escort mixed with Integra, plant trap crops and plant mints around the farm.

3. CABBAGE APHID  (Brevicoryne brassicae): Aphids feed by sucking sap from their host plants.  Continued feeding by aphids causes yellowing, wilting and stunting of plants.
CONTROL; Spray insecticides like Lexus mixed with Integra.

4. CUTWORMS : Cutworms are recognized by their smooth skin, greasy gray colour and “C-shaped”; posture when disturbed. Eggs are laid by the night flying moths on grasses, weeds, and other host plants.  Cutworms feed at night causing serious damage to stems and foliage of young plants, during the day they retreat to their underground burrows.
CONTROL: Spray insecticides like Pentagon, plant trap crops, plant mints around the farm.

DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Diseases that attack cabbage include black rot, fungal spots, blight, powdery mildew and bacterial soft rot etc.

1. BLACK ROTS (Xanthomonas campenstris): The disease is easily recognized by the presence of large yellow to yellow-orange “V”-shaped areas extending inward from the margin of older leaves, and by black veins in the infected area. The tap root may rot or turn brown with bad odour.
CONTROL, PREVENTION AND TREATMENT:
a. Spray copper fungicides from the 50th day after planting.
b. Use hot water treatment to destroy the bacteria that may be infesting the seeds.

2. DOWNEY MILDEW: This is caused by  Hyaloperonospora parasitica previously known as Peronospora parasitica.
Downy mildew is first seen as a fluffy or powdery-white mass of spores on the undersurface of brassica leaves. This is followed by a black speckling and puckering of the upper surface. Leaves prematurely turns yellow and fall from the plants.
CONTROL, PREVENTION AND TREATMENT:
a. Avoid overcrowding seedlings so that there is sufficient air movement around them.
b. Carefully check each seedling before transplanting in the field, and remove any that show downy mildew symptoms.
c. If symptoms are seen, spray all the seedlings with a systemic fungicide like trinity Gold mixed with Integra.
d. Spray full strength vinegar to eliminate heavy accumulations of mildew.

3. DAMPING OFF: Seeds may be infected as soon as moisture penetrates the seed coat or a bit later as the radicle begins to extend, all of which rot immediately under the soil surface (pre-emergence damping-off).  Infection results in lesions at or below the soil line. The seedling will discolor or wilt suddenly, or simply collapse and die.
CONTROL, PREVENTION AND TREATMENT:
a. Use certified seeds.
b. Crop rotation for 3 years with maize, onions, spinach, sweet potatoes and beans. The seedbeds should be situated in areas that have not had previous cruciferous crops.
c. Plant on raised beds to reduce moisture content in the root zone and provide appropriate drainage.
d. Avoid field operations when it’s wet.
e .Keep nursery/field weed free.
f. Use clean plastic or wooden trays to raise seedlings.
g. Use a low seed rate in seed beds as overcrowding of seedlings favours the disease.
h. Discard all seedlings with wire stem, and discoloured roots when transplanting and plants with bottom rots, head rots and root rots.
i. Solarise seed bed soil for 8 weeks using transparent plastic paper.
j. Drench with  Trichoderma  based products eg Trianum at 1:5 (trianum to water), Rootguard, Trichotech, Ecot. or use Propamocarb hydrochloride based products eg Previcur at 30-50ml/20L, Propeller at 60-120ml/20L at seedling stage and twice when crop matures etc.

4. HEAD ROT: It is caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum.
Symptoms often first appear as water soaked spots on lower or upper cabbage leaves. As water soaked spots enlarge, infected tissue becomes soft, and some outer leaves begin to wilt. A white cottony growth becomes evident on the leaves as the disease progresses.
CONTROL , PREVENTION AND TREATMENT
a. Use of fungicide nativo (tebuconazole mixed with trifloxystrobin) is the most effective. It inhibite growth of the pathogen. Also, carbendazim and tebuconazole can be used.
b. Use of biocontrol agents like Trichoderma viride TV-1 .

5. ALTERNARIA LEAF SPOT:
Alternaria Leaf Spot is a common disease of cabbage caused by the fungal pathogen Alternaria brassicicola.
The most common symptom of Alternaria diseases is yellow, dark brown to black circular leaf spots with target like, concentric rings. Lesion centers may fall out, giving the leaf spots a shot-hole appearance. Individual spots coalesce into large necrotic areas and leaf drop can occur.
CONTROL , PREVENTION AND TREATMENT
a. Use clean seed and practice crop rotation.
b. Apply fungicides as foliar sprays .

The post CABBAGE FARMING appeared first on Supreme Light.

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is a flowering plant belonging to the family Zingiberaceae. Other plants in this family includes: turmeric (Curcuma longa), cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum), galangal, myoga (Zingiber mioga), fingerroot (Boesenbergia rotunda), and the bitter ginger (Zingiber zerumbet) etc.
Ginger is called by different names in different countries.
In Myanmar for example, ginger is called gyin, in Thailand’, it is called ขิง khing, in Malaysia, ginger is called halia, in Philippines, ginger is called luya etc.
Ginger is a popular spice, a medicinal herb for commercial and other purposes. It possesses a root called rhizome, ginger root or ginger, which is an important part of the ginger plant widely used as a spice and a folk medicine.
Ginger originated in Maritime Southeast Asia and was likely domesticated first by the Austronesian peoples. It was transported with them throughout the Indo-Pacific during the Austronesian expansion (c. 5,000 BP), reaching as far as Hawaii. Ginger is one of the first spices to have been exported from Asia, arriving in Europe with the spice trade, and was used by ancient Greeks and Romans. The distantly related dicots in the genus Asarum are commonly called wild ginger because of their similar taste.
The world producer of ginger is india. It has now being grown in other parts of the world. In 2020, statistics provide that the world production of ginger was 4.3 million tonnes, with India producing 43% of the world total. Other countries like Nigeria, China, and Nepal also had substantial production.
Ginger is a medicinal plant that contains active ingredients like gingerol, zingerone, gingerdiol, zingibrene, and shogaols. It’s also a source of vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients. Medicinal plants like ginger can be a safe alternative to antibiotics and can support animal health, improve growth and performance, reduce stress etc in livestock production.

DESCRIPTION OF GINGER PLANT
The ginger plant is an herbaceous perennial that grows annual pseudostems (false stems made of the rolled bases of leaves) about one meter tall, bearing narrow leaf blades. The inflorescences bear flowers having pale yellow petals with purple edges, and arise directly from the rhizome on separate shoots. The rhizome is major part consumed by man and use for propagation.

BENEFITS OF GINGER
The most important part of the ginger plant is the rhizome or ginger roots or ginger.

1. It is used in traditional medicine in places like China, India and Japan for centuries, and as a dietary supplement.

2. Ginger can be used for a variety of food items such as vegetables, candy, soda, pickles, and alcoholic beverages.

3. Ginger is a spice with fragrant aroma which makes it appealing to taste.

4. Young ginger rhizomes are juicy and fleshy with a mild taste. They are often pickled in vinegar or sherry as a snack or cooked as an ingredient in many dishes.

5. The young ginger can be steeped in boiling water to make ginger herb tea, to which honey may be added.

6. In Indian cuisine, ginger is a key ingredient, especially in thicker gravies, as well as in many other dishes of vegetarian and meat-based dishes.

7. Ginger is an ingredient in traditional Ayurvedic medicine.

8. It is an ingredient in traditional Indian drinks, both cold and hot, including spiced masala chai.

9. Fresh ginger is used in making spices such as pulse and lentil curries and other vegetable preparations.

10. Fresh ginger together with peeled garlic and cloves are crushed or ground to form ginger garlic masala.

11. Fresh, as well as dried, ginger is used to spice tea and coffee, especially in winter.

12. In south India, “sambharam” is a summer yogurt drink made with ginger, a key ingredient, along with green chillies, salt and curry leaves.

13. Ginger powder is used in food preparations intended primarily for pregnant or nursing women, the most popular one being katlu, which is a mixture of gum resin, ghee, nuts, and sugar.

14. Ginger is also consumed in candied and pickled form. In Japan, ginger is pickled to make beni shōga and gari or grated and used raw on tofu or noodles. It is made into a candy called shoga no sato zuke.

15. In the traditional Korean kimchi, ginger is either finely minced or just juiced to avoid the fibrous texture and added to the ingredients of the spicy paste just before the fermenting process.

16. In Myanmar, ginger is called gyin, a main ingredient in traditional medicines. It is also consumed as a salad dish called gyin-thot, which consists of shredded ginger preserved in oil, with a variety of nuts and seeds.

17. In Thailand’ where it is called ขิง khing, it is used to make a ginger garlic paste in cooking.

18. In Indonesia, a beverage called wedang jahe is made from ginger and palm sugar. Indonesians also use ground ginger root, called jahe, as a common ingredient in local recipes.

19. In Malaysia, ginger is called halia and used in many kinds of dishes, especially soups.

20. Called luya in the Philippines, ginger is a common ingredient in local dishes and is brewed as a tea called salabat.

21. In Vietnam, the fresh leaves, finely chopped, can be added to shrimp-and-yam soup (canh khoai mỡ) as a top garnish and spice to add a much subtler flavor of ginger than the chopped root.

22. In China, sliced or whole ginger root is often paired with savory dishes such as fish, and chopped ginger root is commonly paired with meat, when it is cooked.

23. Raw ginger juice can be used to set milk and make a dessert, ginger milk curd.

24. In the Caribbean, ginger is a popular spice for cooking and for making drinks such as sorrel, a drink made during the Christmas season.

25. Jamaicans make ginger beer both as a carbonated beverage and also fresh in their homes.

26. In Western cuisine, ginger is traditionally used mainly in sweet foods such as ginger ale, gingerbread, ginger snaps, parkin, and speculaas.

27. A ginger-flavored liqueur called Canton is produced in Jarnac, France. Ginger wine is a ginger-flavoured wine produced in the United Kingdom, traditionally sold in a green glass bottle.

28. Ginger is also used as a spice added to hot coffee and tea.

29. On the island of Corfu, Greece, a traditional drink called τσιτσιμπύρα (tsitsibira), a type of ginger beer, is made. The people of Corfu and the rest of the Ionian islands adopted the drink from the British, during the period of the United States of the Ionian

30. Ginger can be made into candy or ginger wine.

Ginger is also considered safe in livestock feed. It is an important feed additive for livestock because of its many health benefits, which include:

31. ANTIBACTERIAL PROPERTIES: Ginger can be used as an alternative to antibiotics in livestock and aquaculture feeds. It is a natural alternative to antibiotics that can increase the growth and productive efficiency of poultry, ruminant, and aquaculture. Apart from its natural antibacterial properties, it is also have natural antifungal properties, which can be help maintain a healthy skin and coat. This can be particularly beneficial for animals prone to skin allergies.

32. IMPROVED APPETITE: Ginger can improve the palatability of feed and increase appetite.

33. INCREASED SERUM TOTAL PROTEIN LEVELS: Ginger can increase serum total protein levels. Also, studies has reported that ethanolic extract of ginger significantly lowered serum total cholesterol and triglyceride levels and increased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels, preventing tissue damage due to lipid peroxidation.

34. IMPROVED NUTRIENT ABSORPTION: Ginger can help with nutrient absorption. It is a natural feed additives that lower enteric pathogen microbial loads and improve nutrient digestion and absorption, which improve poultry production and broiler performance

35. INCREASED MILK PRODUCTION: Ginger can increase milk production in cattle by improving nutrient digestion and feed consumption. It can increase milk yield and the milk’s contents of protein, lactose, and solids not fat. For example, a study discovered that lactating red Sokoto breed in Nigeria fed a diet containing 250 g of ginger had a higher total milk yield of 360 liters.

36. POULTRY FEED ADDITIVES : Plant-derived additives used in animal feed to improve production performance are known as phytogenic feed additives. Ginger is one of such additive. As a natural feed additive, ginger is beneficial and valuable in poultry nutrition, especially for broilers. It is a natural antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiseptic, antiparasitic, and it also has immunomodulatory properties beneficial to the birds.

37. IMPROVED DIGESTIVE ENZYME ACTIVITIES: Ginger can enhance digestive enzyme activities. It’s volatile oil affects ruminal fermentation and feed digestion. It can also increase the synthesis of bile acids in the liver, which improves lipid digestion and absorption.

38. REDUCED STRESS CONDITIONS: Ginger can help reduce stress conditions in livestock in the following ways:
Ginger contains antioxidants that can help neutralize free radicals and oxidative stress. It also contain gingerols which are bioactive compounds that can help reduce oxidative stress caused by heavy metals, mycotoxins, and aging.
Ginger can also help reduce stress conditions by increasing serum total protein levels. And lastly, it can improve growth performance in livestock, including broilers and rabbits.

39. IMPROVES IMMUNITY AGAINST POULTRY DISEASES: Studies had proven that ginger in chicken feed enhances immunity against Newcastle disease and bacterial bursal infections.

PRODUCTION
Ginger has the ability to grow in a wide variety of land types and areas, however is best produced when grown in a warm, humid environment, at an elevation between 300 and 900 m (1,000 and 3,000 ft).
To start a ginger farm, the following steps must be taken:

SITE SELECTION; The area must have well-drained soil with good sunlight.

CLIMATIC CONDITION: Ginger prefer warm humid condition and thrive in temperature between 25-30°C. It also require a period of low rainfall prior to growing and well-distributed rainfall during growing period are also essential for the ginger to thrive well in the soil.
SOIL TYPE: Ginger grows best in well-drained, deep, and organic-rich soil with a pH between 6.0 and 6.5.
SOIL PREPARATION: The land should be prepared by clearing off all weeds, removing all debris and rocks. The soil should be loosened to
at least a depth of 30 cm. During this preparation, compost and manure can be incorporated into the soil to improve soil fertility.
PLANTING
Ginger is propagated from rhizomes which is the underground stem of the plant.
The size of the ginger rhizome is essential to the production of ginger. The larger the rhizome piece, the faster ginger will be produced and therefore the faster it will be sold onto the market. Prior to planting the seed rhizomes, farmers are required to treat the seeds to prevent pests, and rhizome rot and other seed-borne diseases. Various ways Indian farmers do seed treatment include dipping the seeds in cow dung emulsion, smoking the seeds before storage, and hot water treatment.
After seeds treatment, the prepared soil should be thoroughly dug or ploughed by the farmer to break up and loosen the soil. Water channels should be made 60–80 feet (18–24 m) apart to irrigate the crop.
The next step is planting the treated ginger seeds. The rhizome should be irrigated to keep it moist and then planted. Planting is usually done between March and April or March and June in some places as these months account for the beginning of the monsoon, or rainy season.

SPACING: Healthy Rhizomes should be selected, treated and planted. The seeds should be planted at a spacing of 20-30cm apart ad 5-10cm deep.
MULCHING: Once the planting is done, the crop should be mulched to conserve moisture and check weed growth, as well as check surface run-off to conserve soil moisture. Mulching is done by applying mulch (green leaves for example) to the plant beds directly after planting and again 45 and 90 days into growth.
HILLING: After mulching comes hilling, which is the stirring and breaking up of soil to check weed growth, break the firmness of the soil from rain, and conserve soil moisture.
IRRIGATION: Ginger needs regular watering especially during the first few months of growth.
If rain is low like in some regions, then ensure that the ginger crops receive supplemental irrigation. Avoid overwtering as this can cause root rot. The mulch can help conserve soil moisture.
FERTILIZER APPLICATION: Fertilizers should be applied according to soil test result and recommendation. Ginger requires moderate to high level of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
PESTS AND DISEASES OF GINGER
Ginger plants are susceptible to many pests and diseases.
DISEASES: Some of the diseases include:

1. SOFT ROT OR RHIZOME ROT: This fungal disease is caused by eleven species of Pythium. Among the 11 species, P. myriotylum and P. aphanidermatum cause severe damage in warm climates. Fusarium is another fungus reported to cause soft rot of ginger. When the disease infect the ginger plant, it prevalent in the crop throughout the growing period. The sprouts, roots, developing rhizome and collar region of the pseudo stem are the major parts highly prone to the infection. Symptoms first appear on the aerial parts of the plant. Pathogen form watery and brown lesions in the collar region of the pseudo stem. Later the lesion enlarges, coalesce and cause the stem to rot and collapse. In the old leaves, initially, yellowing (chlorosis) symptoms appear in the tips,
causing the leaves to turn yellow, rhizomes to rot, and a foul odour is produced. It thrives in waterlogged conditions.

2. BACTERIAL WILT: This disease is a major production constraint in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate regions. It is a bacteria infection caused by agent Ralstonia solanacearum Yabuuchi. It spreads quickly in favorable environmental conditions. Symptoms include, initial water soaked patches or linear streaks appearing at the collar region of the pseudo stem and then progresses both upwards and downwards. The pseudo stems from the infected plant can be easily separated with a gentle pull and can be broken off at the base. Mild drooping and curling of leaf margins of lower leaf is the first prominent symptom occurred after the infection, then the infection spread upwards later. Yellowing starts from the lower-most leaves which gradually progresses upwards. In the advanced stage, infected ginger exhibit intense yellowish and wilting symptom

3. PHYLLOSTICTA LEAF SPOT: This is a fungal disease that affects ginger. The causative organism is Phyllosticta zingiberi. The young leaves will show symptoms of small spindle to oval to elongated spots size appearance. Later, the spots developed as white papery center and dark brown margins surrounded by yellow halos. The spots increase in size and coalesce to form larger lesions which lead to the reduction of effective photosynthetic area on the leaves. The affected leaves become shredded and may suffer extensive desiccation.

4. MOSAIC: This is a viral disease caused by Ginger mosaic virus. The virus is transmitted by insect vectors such as Myzus persicae, M. certus, M. humuli, Macrosiphum euphorbiae and Rhopalosiphum insertum.
The symptoms appear with yellowish and dark-green mosaic on leaves of ginger
in the early stage and stunted of leaves and rhizomes at the late stage of infection. Infection of this virus on ginger causes severe reduction of rhizome yield.
PROTECTION: Hot water and hot air treatment of the rhizome.

5. YELLOWS/WET ROT:
Yellows disease is serious problems of ginger causes stem and rhizome rot. The causative agent is Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. zingiberi Trujillo. It is wide spread and prevailed in warm and humid environmental conditions.
Symptoms: Yellowing colouration of leaves. This starts on the margins of the lower leaves which gradually spreads and cover the entire leaves. Later, the yellowing diffuse to older leaves. Old leaves dry first and then younger leaves. The affected plants wilt and dry up but do not fall on the ground in contrast to soft rot and bacterial wilt
CONTROL AND PROTECTION

1. Physical method
2. Chemical method
3. Biological method.
4. cultural method. And
5. integrated method of disease control

PESTS
Some of the pests include:

1. ROOT KNOT NEMATODE: This disease causes warts to grow on the roots and rhizome, damage to root, the absorption function is affected, slow growth, small leaves, dark green leaves, short stems, small branches, generally shorter than the normal plant about 50% and can lead to plant death.

2. CHINESE ROSE BEETLES: These beetles are attracted to dim light and repelled by bright light. Shining bright light on plants may help deter them.

3. RODENTS: These animals can damage the ginger crop by making burrows in the fields.

4. GRAZING ANIMALS: These animals, such as monkeys, buffaloes, and wild boar, can destroy the ginger cultivation by grazing or trampling over it.

5. RHIZOME SCALE: This scale insect sucks juice from the rhizome, causing wilting and plant death.

6. APHIDS : Adult aphids, including wakame aphids, pose a threat to various parts of the plant such as leaves, buds, and other young organs. They extract significant amounts of sap nutrients, leading to malnutrition in plants. 
Others include: Mites, moths, mesquite, thrips and Podoconiosis commonly known as ginger borer or corn borer etc.
GENERAL CONTROL OF GINGER PESTS
a. Maintain hygiene and regularly inspect of ginger farm. 
b. Spray insecticides 
c. Remove borers and destroy the caterpillar by splitting the affected shoot in half. 
d. Seed treatment  
e. Early planting.
f. Apply trichoderma 
g. Use of biocontrol agents during planting. etc.
HARVESTING
This is the final farming stage for ginger. Ginger is harvested when the leaves turn yellow and dry up. It get fully matured at 8-10 months after planting. When the rhizome is planted for products such as vegetable, soda, and candy, harvesting should be done between four and five months of planting, whereas when the rhizome is planted for products such as dried ginger or ginger oil, harvesting must be done eight to ten months after planting.
To harvest, carefully dig up the rhizomes, remove the leaves and stem. Rinse the rhizomes in clean water and dry them in the sun for several days.
PROCESSING AND MARKETING
Ginger can be sold fresh, dried or grounded to produce ginger powder, oil and candy.
Dry ginger is one of the most popular forms of ginger in commerce. After harvesting the rhizomes at full maturity (8–10 months). Soak them in water, scraped off the outer skin with a bamboo splinter or wooden knife by hand. This is too delicate a process to be done by machinery. Then dry in the sun for several days. The whole dried rhizomes can be ground for consumption. Fresh ginger on the other hand does not need further processing after harvest, and it is harvested much younger

ADVERSE EFFECTS OF CONSUMING GINGER
Although generally recognized as safe,

1. Ginger can cause heartburn and other side effects, particularly if taken in powdered form.
2 It may adversely affect individuals with gallstones,

3. It may interfere with the effects of anticoagulants, such as warfarin or aspirin, and other prescription drugs.

4. Asarum canadense, also known as “wild ginger”, a native species of eastern North America, produce roots with similar aromatic properties like true ginger. The plant contains aristolochic acid, a carcinogenic compound that causes seroius adverse effect on human. The United States Food and Drug Administration warns that consumption of aristolochic acid-containing products is associated with “permanent kidney damage, sometimes resulting in kidney failure that has required kidney dialysis or kidney transplantation.

5. In addition, some patients have developed certain types of cancers, most often occurring in the urinary tract when they consume aristolochic acid.

6. Some people believe that ginger helps alleviate nausea and vomiting in pregnant women due to its hot taste. But there is no concrete evidence associated with these properties of ginger in relation to pregnancy or chemotherapy, and its safety has not been demonstrated.

7. It remains uncertain whether ginger is effective for treating any disease, and use of ginger as a drug has not been approved by the FDA ( The Food and Drug Administration ).

In conclusion, ginger is easy to grow and with proper care and management, it can be a profitable agricultural business and contribute to countries agricultural growth.

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Turmeric “Curcuma longa” is also known as golden spice. It is a flowering plant in the ginger family Zingiberaceae. A perennial, rhizomatous, herbaceous plant native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. India is the world’s leading producer and exporter of turmeric, contributing 80% of the world’s production. It is used for centuries in cooking, traditional medicines and religious ceremonies.
Tumeric, a tropical plant with vibrant yellow roots giving reasons why the plant is cultivated each year, that is for its rhizomes, some for propagation in the following season and some for consumption.
The rhizomes are used fresh or boiled in water and dried, after which they are ground into a deep orange-yellow powder commonly used as a colouring and flavoring agent in many Asian cuisines, especially for curries, as well as for the dyeing characteristics imparted by the principal turmeric constituent, curcumin. The curcumin is also known as diferuloylmethane (C21H20O6), is a hydrophobic polyphenolic phytocompound present in the rhizomes of the turmeric plant. It is a bright yellow chemical produced by the turmeric plant. It is approved as a food additive by the World Health Organization, European Parliament, and United States Food and Drug Administration.

DESCRIPTION
Turmeric is a perennial herbaceous plant that reaches up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) tall. It has highly branched, yellow to orange, cylindrical, aromatic rhizomes.
a. THE LEAVES: The leaves are alternate and arranged in two rows. They are divided into leaf sheath, petiole, and leaf blade. From the leaf sheaths, a false stem is formed. The petiole is 50 to 115 cm (20–45 in) long. The simple leaf blades are usually 76 to 115 cm (30–45 in) long and rarely up to 230 cm (7 ft 7 in). They have a width of 38 to 45 cm (15 to 17+1⁄2 in) and are oblong to elliptical, narrowing at the tip.
b. INFLORESCENCE: At the top of the inflorescence, stem bracts are present on which no flowers occur, these are white to green and sometimes tinged reddish-purple, and the upper ends are tapered.

c. THE FLOWER AND FRUITS: The hermaphrodite flowers are zygomorphic and threefold. The three sepals are 0.8 to 1.2 cm (3⁄8 to 1⁄2 inch) long, fused, and white, and have fluffy hairs; the three calyx teeth are unequal. The three bright-yellow petals are fused into a corolla tube up to 3 cm (1+1⁄4 inch) long. The three corolla lobes have a length of 1.0 to 1.5 cm (3⁄8–5⁄8 inches) and are triangular with soft-spiny upper ends. While the average corolla lobe is larger than the two lateral, only the median stamen of the inner circle is fertile. The dust bag is spurred at its base. All other stamens are converted to staminodes. The outer staminodes are shorter than the labellum. The labellum is yellowish, with a yellow ribbon in its center and it is obovate, with a length from 1.2 to 2.0 cm (1⁄2 to 3⁄4 inch). Three carpels are under a constant, trilobed ovary adherent, which is sparsely hairy. The fruit capsule opens with three compartments.
In East Asia, the flowering time is usually in August. Terminally on the false stem is an inflorescence stem, 12 to 20 cm (4+1⁄2 to 8 inch) long, containing many flowers. The bracts are light green and ovate to oblong with a blunt upper end with a length of 3 to 5 cm (1 to 2 in).

BENEFITS OF TUMERIC

1. Turmeric is one of the key ingredients in many Asian dishes, imparting a mustard-like, earthy aroma and pungent, slightly bitter flavor to foods.

2. It is used mostly in savory dishes, but also is used in some sweet dishes, such as the cake sfouf.

3. It contains essential nutrients in curries and teas.

4 In India, turmeric leaf is used to prepare special sweet dishes, patoleo, by layering rice flour and coconut-jaggery mixture on the leaf, then closing and steaming it in a special utensil (chondrõ).

5. It has numerous health benefits due to its anti- inflammatory and antioxidant properties.

6. Most turmeric is used in the form of rhizome powder to impart a golden yellow colour.

7. It is used in many products such as canned beverages, baked products, dairy products, ice cream, yogurt, yellow cakes, orange juice, biscuits, popcorn, cereals and sauces.

8. It is a principal ingredient in curry powders.

9. Although typically used in its dried, powdered form, turmeric also is used fresh, like ginger.

10. In South Africa, turmeric is used to give boiled white rice a golden colour, known as geelrys (yellow rice) traditionally served with bobotie.

11. In Vietnamese cuisine, turmeric powder is used to colour and enhance the flavors of certain dishes, such as bánh xèo, bánh khọt, and mì Quảng. 13. The staple Cambodian curry paste, kroeung, used in many dishes, including fish amok, typically contains fresh turmeric.

12. In Indonesia, turmeric leaves are used for Minang or Padang curry base of Sumatra, such as rendang, sate padang, and many other varieties.

13. In the Philippines, turmeric is used in the preparation and cooking of kuning, satti, and some variants of adobo.

14. Turmeric is used in a hot drink called “turmeric latte” or “golden milk” that is made with milk, especially coconut milk. The turmeric milk drink known as haldī dūdh (haldī [हलदी] means turmeric in Hindi) is a traditional Indian recipe. Sold in the US and UK, the “golden milk” uses nondairy milk and sweetener, and sometimes black pepper after the traditional recipe (which may also use ghee).

15. Turmeric is approved for use as a food colour, assigned the code E100. The oleoresin is used for oil-containing products.
In combination with annatto (E160b), turmeric has been used to colour numerous food products. Turmeric is used to give a yellow colour to some prepared mustards, canned chicken broths, and other foods—often as a much cheaper replacement for saffron

16. Tumeric has being long used in Ayurvedic medicine, there is no high-quality clinical evidence that consuming turmeric or curcumin is effective for treating any disease

17. The rhizome can be harvested, dried, and ground into the turmeric powder used in cooking. Turmeric powder has a warm, bitter, black pepper-like flavor and earthy, mustard-like aroma.

18. Turmeric’s active compound, curcumin, has potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, which may help carry out the following health challenges:

i. Reduce joint pain and inflammation

ii. Improve cognitive function and memory

iii. Support immune system function

iv. Aid in digestion and reduce symptoms of bloating and gas

v. Lower cholesterol levels and improve heart health

vi. Help in preventing certain types of cancer

Apart from benefits of tumeric to human health, Turmeric is also an important part of livestock feed. Some of its benefits in livestock feed include: 

19. Improve livestock health: Turmeric has antifungal, immunomodulatory, antioxidative, and antimutagenic effects in livestock. 

20. Better feed intake: Adding turmeric powder to the diet of broiler fowls can improve feed intake. 

21. Weight gain: Turmeric can help broiler fowls gain weight. The curcumin in the tumeric is discovered to reduce absolute and abdominal fat weights by regulating lipid metabolism in broiler fowls.

22. Improved feed conversion ratio: Turmeric can improve the feed conversion ratio of broiler fowls. 

23. Reduced fat: Well fed broilers are known to accumulate fat in their body. To reduce this fat, turmeric can be mixed with the broiler diet to reduce the absolute and abdominal fat weights of the fowl. 

24. Boost immune system: Turmeric mixed with cattle feed helps boost the immune system of cattle. 

25. Maintained calcium phosphorus ratio: Cattle fed with curcumin maintain a high calcium phosphorus ratio.

26. In intensive farming system, livestocks are usually faced with oxidative stress and inflammation etc. These conditions do affect the well-being and performance of these animals. Therefore, to overcome this problems, the livestock feeds can be reinforced with turmeric derivatives for a better welbeing. wellbeing.

27. Some of the properties of turmeric is its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties. Consuming tumeric can help boost the immune system of poultry and reduce the need for antibiotics

28. Apart from the curcumin, turmeric is also rich in phytonutrients that may protect the body by neutralizing free radicals (pollution, sunlight) and shielding the cells from damage.

29. Curcumin also possesses nutritional and insecticide properties improving poultry and livestock animal’s production performances and broad-spectrum activity against insects that damage agricultural crops and can transfer diseases to human.

TUMERIC FARMING
Tumeric is a lucrative crop for farmers. It requires the right techniques of cultivation to make it a profitable farming business.
Turmeric farming involves growing the spice in tropical conditions that are warm and humid. Here are the growing requirements of turmeric: 

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT:
Turmeric can grow in a variety of tropical conditions, but it prefers a temperature range of 20–30°C (68 and 86 °F) and high annual rainfall of at least 1,500 mm per year to thrive. If temperatures exceed 32°C (90°F), the plant can become heat stressed. Therefore, afternoon shade should be provided and watering should be increased. It can also be grown in dry areas with irrigation. 

LAND SELECTION AND PREPARATION: This is the first step in tumeric production. The land should be an area located where there is full sunlight and have access to irrigation facilities. The land should be prepared by ploughing first, followed by harrowing to create a fine levelled surface. It should be free of weeds, debris and rocks.

SOIL: Turmeric can grow in many types of soil, but it does best in well-drained loose soil rich in organic matter such as sandy or clay loam soils with a pH of 5.5–7.8. 
Clay soil mixed with aged compost can also be used. This will help improve drainage and root development. Poorly drained, rocky, or clay soils are not ideal. 
SEED SELECTION AND TREATMENT: Good quality healthy seeds should be selected for planting. The seeds should also be diseased free with high germination rate. An Healthy Rhizomes should be plump, firm turmeric roots without signs of shriveling or mold.
Before planting, the seeds should be treated with fungicides to prevent the on- set of soil borne diseases.

PLANTING: Tumeric is usually planted during rainy season, preferably between May and June. It is planted from rhizomes, which are root cuttings. These seeds are planted in furrows or ridges or beds that are 15 cm high and 1 m wide. Space the beds 50 cm apart. The seeds are spaced at about 45- 60cm apart. And planted at a depth of 5-7 cm and covered with soil.

IRRIGATION: Tumeric requires regular intervals of watering to grow well. Water the turmeric crop 3–4 times, depending on the soil moisture and local weather conditions. 
FERTILIZER REQUIREMENT: Fertilizers should be applied at regular intervals to ensure the crop receives the necessary nutrients required for growth. The soil can be dug to a depth of 35–40 cm and broadcasting 16 tons of farmyard manure or compost per acre. Organic fertilizers like compost tea, worm castings, or organic liquid fertilizer can be used.
HARVESTING: Harvesting tumeric requires proper care.
Harvest the turmeric when the leaves turn light brown or yellow at between 7-9 months of planting. Avoid pulling the plant from the top to prevent breaking off the “hands” or “thumbs” on the rhizomes. The crop is dug out of the soil manually or with a tractor. Manual harvesting involves using a spade or handfork. The rhizomes are then separated from the plant, cleaned by washing and dried in the sun for 7-10 days.
STORAGE: After harvesting, fresh turmeric rhizomes can be stored in the refrigerator for a few weeks.
There two major storage techniques for tumeric:

1. The fresh Storage

2. The dry and grind storage

1. FRESH STORAGE:
Fresh Storage involves cleaning the rhizomes after harvest to remove the dirts and trimming any long roots. Store them in an airtight container in the refrigerator.

2. DRYING AND GRINDING:
The dry and grind storage involves cutting the turmeric roots into small pieces and dehydrate them until they snap easily when broken. Grind the dried pieces into a powder using a spice grinder, food processor, or blender and store the powder.
On general bases, after drying the rhizomes, store the dried rhizomes in a cool and dry place to prevent spoilage. The rhizomes can be stored for 6 months before they start losing their quality.

PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL

To protect the crop from fungal diseases, treat the rhizomes with a solution of fungicides in water. To protect from pests, treat the rhizomes with insecticides. 
Some of the diseases include:

1. TURMERIC LEAF BLIGHT. Turmeric Leaf Blight is caused by the fungus Curvularia lunata, this disease manifests as brown or black spots on leaves, along with yellowing.
CONTROL: This can be controlled by ensure good air circulation and avoid overhead watering over the plant. 

2. RHIZOME ROT: This is caused by overwatering of the plant.
CONTROL: Maintain consistent moisture but avoid overwatering.

PESTS OF TUMERIC

While turmeric is a relatively hardy crop, it can be susceptible to certain pests. Some of these include:

1. RHIZOME-DAMAGING PESTS: Such pests include;
Nematodes, Lesion worms and stem borers
To prevent these pests, use fresh, high-quality potting soil and practice crop rotation to prevent nematodes, lesion worms, and shoot borers.

2. APHIDS AND SPIDER MITES: These can be avoided by maintaining proper watering and ensuring adequate nutrient levels. Use insecticidal soap, neem oil, or a strong hose spray.

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Vermiponics is a soil-less growing technique that combines hydroponics and vermiculture where worm waste are used as a nutrient solution for plants. It can also be refered to as fishless aquaponics alternative. It is like aquaponics but differs in the sense that it uses worms instead of fish and diluted wormbin leachate, also known as “worm tea”, as a nutrient solution for plants instead of fish waste or chemicals. The system combines the principles of hydroponics and vermicompost. The worms are collected and introduced into a collection of food scraps. The worms feed on the scraps and create worm castings. The worm castings are then diluted and aerated to make a worm tea which is then used as a nutrient solution in a hydroponic set up. It is a less expensive, easier-to-care-for alternative to hydroponic systems that use fish waste. 

BENEFITS OF VERMIPONICS

1. NATURAL FERTILIZER: Worm castings are a natural fertilizer that provide nitrogen and trace minerals.

2. GOOD FOR SMALLER SETUPS: It does not require a larger space to set up compared to aquaponics. The worms require smaller indoor space to construct their feeding beds . Therefore, it is suitable for smaller indoor gardens, vermiponics is compact and easy to manage, making it ideal for limited spaces.

3. EASIER THAN CARING FOR FISH: Worms require oxygen and can survive on waste food materials etc which are used more efficiently than fish. The worms are also less prone to diseases compared to fishes.

4. Can be used for harvesting vermicompost suitable for plant growth and soil fertility.

5. It requires less water usage than aquaponics. Fertilization using betta fish or other fish needs enough water for the fish to live in. The water runs nutrients through the indoor garden. There is need to refresh the water in the fish tank every week. Depending on the size of the hydroponic setup. Therefore, quit a huge quantity of water is needed in an aquaponic system. But in vermiponics, the worms will live in soil and compost with water added to keep everything moist. The vermiponic setup uses much less water than traditional aquaponics.

6. Worm castings are a known natural fertilizer. They provide nitrogen and trace minerals. In fact, even if vermiponics is not used in the hydroponic garden system, earthworm castings can be purchased or collected as an organic fertilizer.

7. Worm tea can be made from the wormcastings. The worm tea contain beneficial natural nutrients from worms in the vermicomposting (worm composting) setup, apart from your hydroponic setup.

8. Because vermiponics relies less on artificial fertilisers and employs natural processes to fertilise plants, vermiponics is regarded as a sustainable and environmentally beneficial technique for growing plants.

9. Due to internal water recirculation and reuse, it also reduces the amount of water used. Additionally, vermiponics can produce both fish and vegetables, providing a sustainable source of protein and fresh produce.

10. One of the significant advantages of vermiponics is its ability to reduce the reliance on external fertilizers. The continuous production of nutrient-rich worm castings within the system means that plants receive a steady supply of nutrients, decreasing the need for additional nutrients.

11. EFFICIENT NUTRIENT CONSUMPTION: Worms consume 30% less food than fish while providing the same nutrient load in a vermiponic system, enhancing efficiency in nutrient utilization. It supplies essential nutrients like nitrogen and trace minerals that fuel plant growth in vermiponics. Apart from this, worm castings also contribute to improving soil structure, water retention, and aeration in the grow beds, creating an optimal environment for plant roots to thrive.

12. The worm castings contain beneficial microbes that support healthy root development and enhance plant resistance to diseases.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AQUAPONICS AND VERMIPONICS

1. VERMIPONICS IS GREAT FOR SMALLER SETUPS:
Worms are quite small. Although farmers can make a small betta fish tank with one fish, worms are a terrific alternative for smaller indoor gardens. And aquaponics growers stated that worms work for their larger garden setups as well.

2. EASIER THAN CARING FOR FISH:
Fish require space and specialized food, as well as access to oxygen. Although worms also require oxygen, they utilize it more efficiently than fish, meaning they can handle equipment failures or other issues more easily. As for food, worms will eat almost anything that is biodegradable such as leaves, lawn clippings, manure, food scraps (vegetable or fruit), or even paper or cardboard.

3. NUTRIENT SOURCES: Vermiponics utilizes worms to provide nutrients for plants. The nutrients can be from kitchen wastes etc, whereas aquaponics relies on fish waste.

4. FEED EFFICIENCY: Worms in vermiponics consume 30% less food than fish in aquaponics to provide the same nutrient load.

5. RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS: Vermiponics requires less water and has negligible ammonia production compared to aquaponics.

6. CAPITAL INTENSIVE: Vermiponics is less capital intensive as it rely on waste food scraps from kitchen, plant debris and clippings etc which can easily be sourced compared to aquaponic which require huge capital to setup.

ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS FOR VERMIPONICS

When setting up a vermiponics system, farmers need to adhere to instructions to ensure proper functioning of the system. These essential components lay the foundation for a successful vermiponics system. Some of the essential components include: worm beds, plant beds, a well-designed water circulation system between them, curing tanks, bell siphon, plants and worms.
a. WORM BEDS: the worm bed is a suitable environment for the worms to thrive and produce nutrient-rich castings.
b. PLANT BEDS: A gravel or a hydroponic medium in plant beds is needed to support optimal plant growth.
c. WATER CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: A water circulatory system that will allows water to flow between the worm beds and plant beds efficiently is needed. The water will circulate from the aquarium to the grow beds.
d. CURING TANK: The circulatory system should lead to a curing tank where worm tea will be collected and cured for some weeks or month before usage for crop production.
e. BELL SIPHONS: Utilized for draining filtered water back into the aquarium or reservoir so as to maintaining a healthy environment for both the worms and plants.
f. PLANTS: Key components that will be nourished by the system.
g. WORMS: Vital for aiding in the filtration process, nutrient production and maintaining the system’s biological health.
All these items will help create a successful vermiponics system where plants, worms, and media work together harmoniously to sustain a healthy environment.

WORM SPECIES TO USE IN A VERMIPONIC SYSTEM

There are different species of worms that can be employed in a vermiponic system. Some of them include: Red worms, such as Eisenia fetida or Lumbricus rubellus. These are commonly chosen for vermiponics due to their efficient composting abilities. These worm species excel in organic waste environments, breaking down dead matter into nutrient-rich material for the plants in the system.

Their adaptability to various conditions and high reproductive rates make them well-suited for vermiponics setups. The continuous activity of red worms in vermiponics systems helps maintain nutrient levels and enhance soil structure in the grow beds. Also, earth worm can be employed. But are not as efficient as the red worms.

CHARACTERISTIC THAT MAKES THE RED WORMS A HIGHLY EFFICIENT CHOICE FOR VERMIPONICS SYSTEM
a. They have ability to break down organic matter into castings faster
b. The worms reproduce quickly in favorable conditions, ensuring a steady population
c. They play a vital role in nutrient cycling, providing essential nutrients for plants
d. They help maintain a healthy and productive environment.
e. They help improve soil structure and fertility.

HOW TO PREPARE WORM TEA
Collect some worm beddings and place them into a container with perforated base or base side tap. The worm beddings include kitchen wastes like banana peels, yam peels, egg shell, rotten vegetables like lettuce, cucumber etc. Worms should be introduced ontop of the worm beddings and left for decomposition process to take place. During the break down process of the beddings, worm casting are produced. Water should be introduced occasionally and collected at the base of the saturated containers as worm tea. Or if the container has an installed tap, the tap can be opened to collect the worm tea into a container. Keeping the worm bedding moist will result in continuous action of decomposition by the worms. The worm tea collected should be left to cure for few weeks in the tropics. But in the temperate region, the worm tea can be left to cure for a month.

Other materials that can be used for the worm beddings include animal manure, wood and grass clippings, etc.
After collection of cured worm tea and ready to use in the vermiponics, neem juice or other natural extract to control pest can be introduced to control pests.

Note: When the worms produce castings, the casting can be collected and dissolve in water to extract the nutrients in them or the casting left in the worm bed and water pumped in to extract the nutrients in liquid form as worm tea. The worm tea is rich in many micronutrients.
Urine which is rich in macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) as well as micronutrients, can be applied to the worm tea to fortify it with nutrients. Both the urine and the worm tea can be combined as a rich source of plant nutrients. This can then be pumped throughout murals where plants are grown, hence, vermiponics is formed.
ADVANTAGES OF VERMIPONICS OVER OTHER PONICS SYSTEM
Vermiponics is gaining popularity globally for several reasons. It is more advantageous compared to other ponics system in several ways including:

1. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE: Vermiponics is a sustainable method of agriculture that minimizes wastage and uses natural processes to grow plants. Natural wastes like kitchen wastes, plant clippings , animal manure etc are utilized for the production of the worm tea.

2. ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY: It is a natural plant nutrient source. It reduces the need for chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and it recirculates water, minimizing water use and environmental pollution.

3. HIGH-QUALITY PRODUCE: Vermiponics can produce high-quality, nutrient-dense produce, as the plants are grown in a controlled environment and receive a consistent supply of nutrients.

4. INCREASED FOOD PRODUCTION: Vermiponics can increase food production in areas where traditional agriculture is limited due to poor soil quality or lack of space. It can be set up in urban areas, home gardens, as commercial production etc to provide fresh produce to local communities.

5. REDUCED CARBON FOOTPRINT: Vermiponics has a smaller carbon footprint compared to traditional agriculture. It employs the use of worms to degrade waste materials compared to burning of wastes that produce carbon into the atmosphere. It also reduces the need for transportation and uses less water and energy.

6. TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS: Technological advancements have made vermiponics more accessible and cost-effective. With advancements in sensors, automation, and software, vermiponics can be monitored and managed remotely, reducing labor costs and increasing efficiency

7. COMBINES TWO PONIC SYSTEM INTO A SINGLE UNIT: It is a gardening technique that combines two system of hydroponics and vermiculture. The system can also combine aquaponics to raise fishes. By combining the power of worms with hydroponics, this innovative method offers a unique approach to nurturing plants.

8. SOILLESS FARMING SYSTEM: Vermiponics is a method that involves using worms to break down organic matter and create nutrient-rich worm castings, which act as a natural fertilizer for plant growth. Unlike traditional aquaponics systems that rely on fish waste for nutrients, Vermiponics allows plants to thrive in a soil-less environment without the need for fish. By harnessing the power of worms, Vermiponics provides a sustainable and efficient way to grow plants indoors or in limited spaces.

9. SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP:
The symbiotic relationship between the worms and the plants in Vermiponics is crucial. The worms not only break down the organic matter but also help maintain the ecosystem balance by recycling nutrients. As the worms feed on organic waste, they convert it into valuable nutrients that are readily available to the plants. This natural process mimics how plants receive nutrients in a traditional soil environment but in a more controlled and efficient manner.

MAINTENANCE OF THE VERMIPONICS SYSTEM

1. Ensure proper water circulation between worm beds and plant beds, and sticke to a watering schedule in vermiponics setup. This will help ensure the overall functionality of the vermiponics system.

2. For advanced systems, farmer must be vigilant about potential clogs in pumps.

3. Ensure the bin is constructed with expand metal sides and thick filter fabric for water access.

4. To ensure the vermiponics system functions smoothly, regularly check the moisture levels to keep the worms active.

5. Drain only the humus liquid for plant feeding, maintaining the system’s balance.

6. To ensure the smooth operation of the vermiponics system, monitoring and managing the worm population is crucial for maintaining a balanced ecosystem. Proper worm population management involves adjusting feeding schedules, maintaining optimal conditions, and utilizing worm castings for plant nutrition.

7. Check and adjust the water levels in the grow beds to prevent over-saturation.

8. Clean out any accumulated humus in the system or media to maintain efficient nutrient cycling.

9. Regular cleaning of grow beds to remove humus buildup is necessary.

10. Worms should be fed with appropriate materials. This is essential for system maintenance.

11. Implementing separate systems to collect humus can prevent blockages and improve nutrient distribution.

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Bioturbation is the process by which plants and animals move, mix, and restructure soil and sediment. It can simply be defined as the mixing of soil or sediments by living organisms. It can occur in terrestrial or aquatic habitat.
Charles Darwin was the first person to recognize the importance of bioturbation for soil processes and geomorphology. He devoted his final scientific book to the subject. 
Bioturbation is one of the agents of organic weathering. It includes burrowing, ingestion, and defecation of sediment grains by organisms. It also include displacing soil by plant roots, digging by burrowing animals (such as ants or rodents), pushing sediment aside (such as in animal tracks), or eating and excreting sediment, as earthworms do. Bioturbation aids the penetration of air and water and loosens sediment to promote winnowing or washing (transportation). It is important for the environment and is considered a primary driver of biodiversity. 
The primary goal of bioturbation is for organisms to access resources in soil such as food, plant nutrients and water.

Bioturbation includes soil translocation by burrowing and ingestion, soil deformation by organism expansion, and soil stabilization by compounds secreted by organisms and their tissue. It also involves the transport of solutes and solids by the activities (e.g., feeding and movement) of macrobenthos. These macrobenthos include arthropods, annelids, and mollusks, which live in biogenic structures buried in the sediment. These processes are extremely important to the formation of soil structure, with impacts to flow and transport properties. Damage to soils from intensive management, compaction or carbon depletion limits the capacity for bioturbation, but bioturbation also helps to restore degraded soils.

A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF BIOTURBATION PROCESS
When animals burrow into sediments, they turn the sediments.
In modern environments, bioturbation destroys almost all bedding in the sediments. Rocks are usually layered into sediments. As animals act on the rock, they take time to destroy the rock layers for bioturbation to occur. For example, this simple illustration will give a clearer picture of how Bioturbation occur. When fresh slices of bread are placed on each other and left, the layers of sliced bread remains fresh without damage. But if the layers of slice bread are left for a week, a lot of damages will occur as mould will grow on it, rats and insects will feed on it etc damaging the bread. Addition of fresh slices of bread on top to the damaged layers of fresh bread will result to further spread of damage to the upper layers. This relate to how bioturbation occurs in rock layers. The effect of bioturbation can only be noticed after some time like a thousand years.

STEPS IN PRESERVING A DISTINCT SEDIMENTS LAYERS

1.Deposit the layer over a wide area of mud

2. Quick covering of the layers to protect it from erosion and bioturbation ( animal burrow or burrows animals dug in sediments).

3. Cementing agents

ORGANISMS THAT CAUSES BIOTURBATION
Organisms that causes bioturbation are called Bioturbators. They are organisms that live in soft sediment habitats and modify sediments. Through their activities, such as feeding and movement, result in burrows, mounds, and feeding or crawling traces. The type of trace left behind after their activities can help identify the types of bioturbators in an area.
For examples:
a. CHIRONOMIDS: Dig and ventilate semipermanent U-shaped tubes

b. TUBIFICID OLIGOCHETES: Live upside down and feed on bottom sediment
c. BIVALVES: Burrow into sediments with only their siphon linked to the surface.

Several organisms are involved in the process of bioturbation. The two major sources of bioturbation are: Burrowing animals and the actions of plant roots. The other organisms include : crustaceans, annelid worms (polychaetes, oligochaetes, etc.), gastropods, bivalves, holothurians, fish, and many other infaunal and epifaunal organisms. They range from aquatic to terrestrial organisms. Some of the aquatic organisms include:
Walruses, salmon, carps, and pocket gophers are examples of large bioturbators in the aquatic environment. Although the activities of these large macrofaunal bioturbators are more conspicuous, the dominant bioturbators are small invertebrates, such as earthworms, polychaetes, ghost shrimp, mud shrimp, and midge larvae. The activities of these small invertebrates, which include burrowing and ingestion and defecation of sediment grains, contribute to mixing and the alteration of sediment structure.
In the terrestrial environment, examples of bioturbators include: Earthworms, collembolans, ants, burrowing clams, burrowing rats, mice, rabbits, beetles, and plant roots etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF BIOTURBATORS BASED ON THEIR FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
Bioturbators have been organized into variety of functional groupings based on the following:
a. SEDIMENT TRANSPORT: The most common classification is based on how bioturbators move and interact with sediments. They transport sediment particles and pore water through burrowing, deposit feeding, and other activities during the process of bioturbation. Their activities significantly impact the physical and chemical properties of sediment.

b. ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS: Bioturbators can be grouped based on ecological characteristics.
c. Biogeochemical effects: Biogeochemical effects are the effects of biotic and abiotic factors on the movement of nutrients and other elements. Therefore, Bioturbators can be grouped based on biogeochemical effects.
d. FEEDING AND MOTILITY: Bioturbators can be grouped based on feeding and motility.
e. FEEDING AND BIOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS:  Bioturbators can be grouped based on feeding and biological interactions.
f. MOBILITY MODES: Bioturbators can be grouped based on mobility.
All of these groupings are based on the way bioturbators transport and interact with sediments, and their function.
CATEGORIES OF BIOTURBATORS
There are five categories of bioturbators. They include:

1. GALLERY-DIFFUSERS : They create complex tube networks within the upper sediment layers and transport sediment through feeding, burrow construction, and general movement throughout their galleries. Gallery-diffusers are heavily associated with burrowing polychaetes, such as Nereis diversicolor , bivalves like N. virens, which excavates burrows and Marenzelleria spp.

2. BIODIFFUSERS: They transport sediment particles randomly over short distances as they move through sediments. The biodiffusers moves particles and particulate organic matter found near sediment surface. Animals mostly attributed to this category include bivalves such as clams, amphipod species, M. balthica and Mya arenaria, etc but can also include larger vertebrates, such as bottom-dwelling fish and rays that feed along the sea floor. Biodiffusers can be further divided into two subgroups, which include:
epifaunal (organisms that live on the surface sediments) biodiffusers and surface biodiffusers: This subgrouping may also include gallery-diffusers.

3. UPWARD-CONVEYORS: These are bioturbators oriented head-down in sediments. Their feeding takes place at depth and transport sediment through their guts to the sediment surface. Major upward-conveyor groups include burrowing polychaetes like the lugworm, Arenicola marina, and thalassinid shrimps.

4. DOWNWARD-CONVEYOR SPECIES: These are bioturbators oriented with their heads towards the sediment-water interface. They defecate at depth. Their activities transport sediment from the surface to deeper sediment layers as they feed. Notable downward-conveyors include those in the peanut worm family, Sipunculidae.

5. REGENERATORS: They are categorized by their ability to release sediment to the overlying water column, which is then dispersed as they burrow. After regenerators abandon their burrows, water flow at the sediment surface and can push in and collapse the burrow. Examples of regenerator species include fiddler and ghost crabs.

HOW BIOTURBATION WORK
Rocks are consolidated soid materials from which soils are formed. These rocks and soils are made up of so many distinct layers.
Under ideal circumstances, sedimentary rock is formed. Sedimentary rocks can be formed from pre-existing rocks, pieces of organisms, or chemical precipitates. The sediments which include bits of soil, rock, and organic matter, collect on the surface of the land or at the bottom of rivers and oceans are compressed together over time to a point of which they form rock. This process is called lithification. They are often found in layers, or bedding, which can be used to create a relative timeline of when the layers were deposited.
The older layers of the sedimentary rocks do lie under newer layers. The older layers of the rock can be forced to the surface by various factors such as volcanoes, and biological processes such as activities of organisms, plant roots etc.
Organisms and plants are constantly shifting and changing Earth’s sediments.
Since bioturbation is so common, sedimentary rocks are divided into three groups that describe their level of bioturbation:
Burrowed rocks, laminated rocks and massive rocks.

a. Burrowed rock is filled with evidence of organisms, and may contain elements from several different sedimentary layers.
b. Laminated rock shows evidence of bioturbation at the surface caused by non-burrowing activity. Examples include furrows and tracks created by aquatic or terrestrial animals.
c. The massive rock contains sediments from just a single layer.

EXAMPLES OF BIOTURBATION
Bioturbation occurs in many different environments and at several different levels. For example:

a. Earthworms digging through soil can shift older materials to higher layers. They can also leave behind traces of their activity in the form of fecal matter which, over time, lithifies.
b. Burrowing marine animals such as crabs, clams, and shrimp, can radically change sedimentary layers. These animals burrow into the sand, creating tunnels and moving materials from one sedimentary layer to another. If the tunnels are sturdy enough, they may later be filled with material formed at a later time.
c. Tree roots often run through multiple layers of soil. As they grow, they may disturb or mix sediments. When they fall, they pull older materials to the surface.
SIGNIFICANCE OF BIOTURBATION

1. Bioturbation provides researchers with information about sediments, and thus about the geology and history of the sediments and the area. For example:
Bioturbation can suggest that a particular area is likely to be rich in petroleum or other natural resources;

2. Bioturbation can provide clues to ancient life in the form of fossilized animal and plant remains;

3. Bioturbation can provide information about life cycles, dietary habits, and migration patterns of contemporary organisms.

4. Bioturbation processes brings water and oxygen into the sediments.

5. The disruption of aquatic sediments and terrestrial soils through bioturbating activities provides significant ecosystem services. These include
a. the alteration of nutrients in aquatic sediment and overlying water,
b. shelter to other species in the form of burrows in terrestrial and water ecosystems, and soil production on land.

6. Bioturbators can also inhibit the presence of other benthic organisms by smothering, exposing other organisms to predators, or resource competition.

7. Bioturbators like thalassinidean shrimps can provide shelter for some organisms and cultivate interspecies relationships within burrows, they have also been shown to have strong negative effects on other species, especially those of bivalves and surface-grazing gastropods, because thalassinidean shrimps can smother bivalves when they resuspend sediment. They have also been shown to exclude or inhibit polychaetes, cumaceans, and amphipods. This has become a serious issue in the northwestern United States, as ghost and mud shrimp (thalassinidean shrimp) are considered pests to bivalve aquaculture operations.

8. The presence of bioturbators can have both negative and positive effects on the recruitment of larvae of conspecifics (those of the same species) and those of other species, as the resuspension of sediments and alteration of flow at the sediment-water interface can affect the ability of larvae to burrow and remain in sediments. This effect is largely species-specific, as species differences in resuspension and burrowing modes have variable effects on fluid dynamics at the sediment-water interface. Deposit-feeding bioturbators may also hamper recruitment by consuming recently settled larvae.

9. Since its onset around 539 million years ago, bioturbation has been responsible for changes in ocean chemistry, primarily through nutrient cycling. Bioturbators played, and continue to play, an important role in nutrient transport across sediments. For example, bioturbating animals are hypothesized to have affected the cycling of sulfur in the early oceans. According to this hypothesis, bioturbating activities had a large effect on the sulfate concentration in the ocean.

10. Bioturbators have also altered phosphorus cycling on geologic scales. Bioturbators mix readily available particulate organic phosphorus (P) deeper into ocean sediment layers which prevents the precipitation of phosphorus (mineralization) by increasing the sequestration of phosphorus above normal chemical rates. The sequestration of phosphorus limits oxygen concentrations by decreasing production on a geologic time scale. This decrease in production results in an overall decrease in oxygen levels, and it has been proposed that the rise of bioturbation corresponds to a decrease in oxygen levels of that time. The negative feedback of animals sequestering phosphorus in the sediments and subsequently reducing oxygen concentrations in the environment limits the intensity of bioturbation in this early environment.

11. Organic contaminants: Bioturbation can either enhance or reduce the flux of contaminants from the sediment to the water column, depending on the mechanism of sediment transport. In polluted sediments, bioturbating animals can mix the surface layer and cause the release of sequestered contaminants into the water column. Upward-conveyor species, like polychaete worms, are efficient at moving contaminated particles to the surface. Invasive animals can remobilize contaminants previously considered to be buried at a safe depth. In the Baltic Sea, the invasive Marenzelleria species of polychaete worms can burrow to 35-50 centimeters which is deeper than native animals, thereby releasing previously sequestered contaminants. However, bioturbating animals that live in the sediment (infauna) can also reduce the flux of contaminants to the water column by burying hydrophobic organic contaminants into the sediment. Burial of uncontaminated particles by bioturbating organisms provides more absorptive surfaces to sequester chemical pollutants in the sediments.

12. Nutrient cycling is still affected by bioturbation in the modern Earth. Some examples in the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are below.

13. In the Terrestrial habitat, plants and animals utilize soil for food and shelter, disturbing the upper soil layers and transporting chemically weathered rock called saprolite from the lower soil depths to the surface. Terrestrial bioturbation is important in soil production, burial, organic matter content, and downslope transport.

14. Tree roots are sources of soil organic matter, with root growth and stump decay also contributing to soil transport and mixing. Death and decay of tree roots first delivers organic matter to the soil and then creates voids, decreasing soil density. Tree uprooting causes considerable soil displacement by producing mounds, mixing the soil, or inverting vertical sections of soil.

15. Burrowing animals, such as earth worms and small mammals, form passageways for air and water transport which changes the soil properties, such as the vertical particle-size distribution, soil porosity, and nutrient content.

16. Invertebrates that burrow and consume plant detritus help produce an organic-rich topsoil known as the soil biomantle, and thus contribute to the formation of soil horizons.

17. Small mammals such as pocket gophers also play an important role in the production of soil. Pocket gophers form above-ground mounds, which moves soil from the lower soil horizons to the surface, exposing minimally weathered rock to surface erosion processes, speeding soil formation. Pocket gophers are thought to play an important role in the downslope transport of soil, as the soil that forms their mounds is more susceptible to erosion and subsequent transport. Similar to tree root effects, the construction of burrows-even when backfilled- decreases soil density. The formation of surface mounds also buries surface vegetation, creating nutrient hotspots when the vegetation decomposes, increasing soil organic matter. Due to the high metabolic demands of their burrow-excavating subterranean lifestyle, pocket gophers must consume large amounts of plant material. Though this has a detrimental effect on individual plants, the net effect of pocket gophers is increased plant growth from their positive effects on soil nutrient content and physical soil properties through enhanced rates of denitrification.

18. Through the consumption of surface-derived organic matter, animals living on the sediment surface facilitate the incorporation of particulate organic carbon (POC) into the sediment where it is consumed by sediment dwelling animals and bacteria.

19. Incorporation of POC into the food webs of sediment dwelling animals promotes carbon sequestration by removing carbon from the water column and burying it in the sediment. In some deep-sea sediments, intense bioturbation enhances manganese and nitrogen cycling.

20. Bioturbating activities have a profound effect on the environment and are thought to be a primary driver of biodiversity.

21. Bioturbation is important in the deep sea because deep-sea ecosystem functioning depends on the use and recycling of nutrients and organic inputs from photic zone

22. Bioturbators enhance the transport of oxygen into sediments through irrigation and increase the surface area of oxygenated sediments through burrow construction.

23. Bioturbators can transport organic matter deeper into sediments through general reworking activities and production of fecal matter. This helps improve fertility at lower layers.

24. Bioturbation can replenish oxygen and other solutes at sediment depth, thus, enhancing respiration by both bioturbators as well as the microbial community and also alter estuarine elemental cycling.

IMPACT OF BIOTURBATION ON THE ENVIRONMENT

a. SOIL STRUCTURE: Bioturbation is a key factor in the formation of soil structure, which affects the flow and transport of materials. It also have impact on soil structure by mixing soil and organic matter together, breaking up compacted layers which helps improve soil structure and fertility. It also improves aeration and water infiltration. Bioturbation also alters the distribution of particle sizes in the soil, alters the porosity of the soil and the carbon content of the soil etc.

b. NUTRIENT DYNAMICS: Bioturbation influences nutrient dynamics in ecosystems. It increases nutrient cycling which can lead to higher rates of primary production and microbial productivity, makes nutrients available for plants and soil biota. It cthealso change the distribution of organic matter in the sediment, thus, increasing the quality and quantity of food for deposit feeders.
Bioturbation can also increase oxygenation in sediments, which can trigger biogeochemical reactions. It can also modify pore water chemistry, which can affect microbial communities.
While in the deep sea, bioturbation can increase the transport of nutrients and organic matter to benthic sediments and also promote carbon sequestration by burying carbon in the sediment.

c. PLANT GROWTH: Bioturbation have positive effect on plant growth. It can alter the soil and improving nutrient cycling, which can in turn support seedling recruitment: It can improve nutrient cycling by altering the availability of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphate. It can also increase oxygen penetration into the sediments needed by plants.
Bioturbation can also alter the microbial activity in the soil, which can support plant growth.

d. CARBON FLOW: Bioturbation influences carbon flow in ecosystems. It can accelerating organic carbon and DOC release and the mineralization of organic carbon. It can promote the remineralization of sedimentary organic matter by bringing labile substrates into contact with more refractory material. Also, by increasing soil oxygen supply, there can be an increase in remineralization of soil carbon.
In addition, benthic fauna can bury plant detritus in deep, anoxic soil layers, which can increase organic carbon sequestration

e. BIODIVERSITY: Bioturbation is thought to be a primary driver of biodiversity. It has a positive impact on biodiversity.
Bioturbation increases the exchange of nutrients between the sediment and the water, which can improve the health of the ecosystem. It also increase the amount of oxygen in the sediment. It makes
food availabile ( organic matter) in sufficient amount to organisms.
Bioturbation can create new niches for microorganisms and change the structure of microbial communities. And it can improve the habitat for plants, allowing them to survive in extreme environments.

BIOTURBATION AND BIOIRRIGATION
Bioturbation and bioirrigation are both biological processes that involve the mixing and movement of sediment, but they differ in various ways.

As bioturbation involves the mechanical disturbance of sediment by benthic organisms which results in the mixing of sediment particles and porewater, it also alter the structure of sedimentary deposits.
Bioturbation can be caused by the roots of large trees or by burrowing animals.
Bioirrigation on the other hand is the process by which benthic organisms flush their burrows with overlying water. This process exchanges dissolved substances between the porewater and overlying seawater, and is important in ocean biogeochemistry.
The magnitude of bioirrigation depends on the abundance of the organisms, their pumping behavior, and the environmental conditions. For example, the lugworm is a bottom dweller that produces significant bioirrigation.
Bioirrigation works as two different processes. These processes are known as particle reworking and ventilation, which is the work of benthic macro-invertebrates (usually ones that burrow). This particle reworking and ventilation is caused by the organisms when they feed (faunal feeding), defecate, burrow, and respire.

EFFECTS OF BIOTURBATION AND BIOIRRIGATION
a. PHOSPHORUS: Bioturbation can increase the flux of phosphorus into the water column, while bioirrigation can reduce this flux.
b. WATER QUALITY: Bioturbation can increase water turbidity, which can limit light penetration and inhibit the growth of macrophytes.
c. HEAVY METALS: Bioturbation and bioirrigation can promote the release of dissolved heavy metals from sediment.
d. RELEASING NUTRIENTS INTO THE WATER COLUMN: Bioturbation can release nutrients from the sediment into the water column. Bioirrigation on the other hand through the activities of infaunal organisms can introduce oxygen into burrows and surrounding anoxic sediment and at the same time enhancing the transport of nutrient-and metalrich pore-water solutes into the overlying water across a range of different sediment types.
e. REWORKING PARTICLES:
Bioturbation can rework particles and transport pore-water. Animals and plants involved in the process move sediment particles around through activities like feeding, burrowing, and defecation. While bioirrigation rework particles by activities of the benthic macro-invertebrates (usually ones that burrow) especially when water flushes through the burrows. This particle reworking are caused by the organisms when they feed (faunal feeding), defecate, burrow, and respire.

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Water is a nessessity substance that all living things cannot do without. It is important for: Temperature regulation, aid digestion, nutrient absorption and waste removal etc. Sources of water could be from rain, ocean, streams, rivers, well, borehole etc.
When there is water shortage, adverse effects will occur on health, the economy, and the environment. Water shortages can lead to waterborne diseases, dehydration, drought, heat exhaustion and heat stress particularly when accompanied with high or extreme temperature etc.
DROUGHT
Drought is a major environmental stress that can negatively impact plant growth and development, and is a significant threat to global food security. It is a prolonged period of dry weather that causes a water shortage. It can happen anywhere in the world and can have serious consequences on people, agriculture, the economy, and the environment. It can be caused by natural factors like weather patterns, or by human activity.

Some natural causes include ocean temperatures like El Niño( A phenomenon that occurs when the sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean are warmer than average) and La Niña ( cooling of the ocean surface temperatures in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean, coupled with changes in the tropical atmospheric circulation, such as winds, pressure and rainfall), Lack of water in stores, Soil moisture levels and climate patterns can cause drought in different parts of the world. For example, low precipitation over an extended period of time can lead to drought. Also, Atmospheric conditions such as climate change, changes in the jet stream, and changes in the local landscape are all factors that contribute to drought occurrence.
Human activities that can cause drought include deforestation, soil degradation, over farming, excessive irrigation, erosion and intensive agriculture.
Droughts can have a serious impact on people, including increasing the risk of disease and death, threatening livelihoods, decreased water quantity and quality, increased mortality rates, and adverse mental health. During drought conditions, fuels for wildfire, such as grasses and trees, can dry out and become more flammable. They can also impact agriculture, causing crop failure and leading to food shortages ( food insecurity).
Droughts can last for weeks, months, or years, and sometimes the effects can last for decades.

TYPES OF DROUGHT
Climatological community has defined four types of drought:

1) Meteorological drought,
2) Hydrological drought,
3) Agricultural drought, and
4) Socioeconomic drought.

1. METEOROLOGICAL DROUGHT: This drought happens when dry weather patterns dominate an area.

2. HYDROLOGICAL DROUGHT: It occurs when low water supply becomes evident, especially in streams, reservoirs, and groundwater levels, usually after many months of meteorological drought.

3. AGRICULTURAL DROUGHT: This type of drought focuses on precipitation shortages, differences between actual and potential evapotranspiration, soil water deficits, reduced groundwater or reservoir levels etc. It happens when crops become affected by dry spell. And

4. SOCIOECONOMIC DROUGHT: Relates the supply and demand of various commodities to drought. It usually occur when the demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall in water supply. For example, drought that result in significantly reduced hydroelectric power production because power no longer do depend on streamflow rather than storage for power generation.
Meteorological drought can begin and end rapidly, while hydrological drought takes much longer to develop and then recover.

CLASSIFICATION OF DROUGHTS
For a better understanding of the causes of drought, droughts can be broadly classified into three main categories. They include;

1. CLASSIFICATION OF DROUGHT BASED ON THE SOURCE OF WATER AVAILABILITY
A. METEOROLOGICAL DROUGHT: This is a Drought caused by lack of rain in a particular region. Based on the percentage of rainfall scarcity, meteorological drought can further be divided into three levels which are:

a. SEVERE DROUGHT: Occurs when rainfall is more than 50% lesser than the normal amount.

b. MODERATE DROUGHT: When rainfall is 26-50% less than normal.

c. SLIGHT DROUGHT: When rainfall is 11 to 25 percent lesser than the normal rainfall in a region.

B. HYDROLOGICAL DROUGHT: This is the type of drought that result from extremely low rainfall which result in the drying up of streams, rivers, lakes, ponds in a particular drought-prone region.
C. AGRICULTURAL DROUGHT: This drought is caused by lack of rain and loss of soil moisture. Agricultural yield becomes damaged and farming practices become very difficult.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF DROUGHT BASED ON THE TIME OF OCCURRENCE
A. SEASONAL DROUGHT: Referred to a prolonged dry period that occurs in climatic areas with distinct wet and dry seasons. These kinds of droughts occur in well-defined dry climates and wet climates too. This can be mainly seen in areas having monsoon types of climate. To overcome this type of drought, farmers do adjust their planting schedules so as to take advantage of the rainy season.
B. PERMANENT DROUGHT: This type of drought occurs in the driest climates, where the vegetation is adapted to aridity and agriculture is only possible with continuous irrigation. Such areas experiencing permanent drought are turned into deserts and the natural vegetation of the place are completely changed and replaced with cactus, Xerophytes, thorny shrubs, etc.
C. CONTINGENT DROUGHT: Many places may experience drought due to irregularity and variation in the amount of rainfall they receive in a particular season. The same areas may experience a lot of rain in the future. Agriculture takes a serious hit due to these droughts.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF DROUGHT BASED ON A MEDIUM
A. SOIL DROUGHT: Result of soil moisture depletion due to droughts.
B. ATMOSPHERIC DROUGHT: Drought is experienced due to certain atmospheric conditions like low humidity, low rainfall, etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DROUGHT
Characteristics of drought include impacts, intensity, duration, spatial extent, and timing.
Intensity commonly refers to the severity of the precipitation deficit and how quickly it develops. Magnitude accounts for the combination of a drought’s intensity and duration. Each drought is unique, but common features of the most severe droughts that have far-reaching human and ecological impacts include long duration, large moisture deficits, and large areal extent, particularly when these impacts occur during a climatological wet season

HEAT STRESS

STRESS
Stress is defined as an external factor that exert a disadvantageous influence on plants. Or it can also be defined as an external condition which adversely affect plant growth, metabolism, development and or productivity of the plant.
CLASSIFICATION OF STRESS
There are two classes of stress . They are:
A. STRESS BASED ON THE MEDIUM THAT CAUSES IT

1. Biotic stress

2. Abiotic stress

BIOTIC STESS: This is the type of stress that occur due to interaction between living organisms. Or can be defined as biological insults that a plant may be exposed to like pathogens infection, insects, parasitism or mechanical damage by herbivores.
ABIOTIC STRESS: These are Physical or chemical factors that the environment imposes on a plant, such as temperature, light, drought, flooding, salinity, and heavy metal toxicity. This stress occur as a result of different changes in the environment. This stress can further be divided into various substresses:
a. Water stress: Drought and flood
b. Metal stress which result in deficiencies and toxicity of nutrients
c. Ultraviolet stress
d. Oxygen stress
e. salinity stress
All these stress directly or indirectly result in oxidative stress. Oxidative stress is the stress due to creation of ROS (Reactive oxygen species).
B. STRESS BASED ON LENGHT OF OCCURRENCE

1. Short term stress

2. Long term stress
SHORT TERM STRESS: This type of stress is also called low stress. It is a period of stress that last within minutes to hours. It makes the plant to be more tolerant to stresses especially if they experience a similar stress later in their development. However, if the stress is too strong or chronic, it can cause considerable damage and eventually lead to cell and plant death. This stress can easily be overcome by impaired mechanisms.
LONG TERM STRESS: It is a stress that result from prolonged period of unfavorable conditions that can cause significant damage and eventually lead to plant death.  This type of stress causes extreme damage to plants which result in impairable injuries or death of the plant.
Note that Plants can develop stress tolerance mechanisms and adapt to some stress, but long-term stress can overwhelm their repair and coping mechanisms. 

STRESS RESISTANT MECHANISMS

1. STRESS RESISTANT PLANTS: This is a plant that is able to tolerate the stress.

2. AVOIDANCE: Avoidance is a plant’s ability to prevent or weaken the effects of a stressor on its cells. It is a resistant mechanism that helps plants escape the damaging effects of environmental stresses. For example, Plants use avoidance strategies to balance water uptake and loss, such as closing stomata to reduce water loss. This mechanism is of two types. Adaptation and Escape
ADAPTATION: Plants have evolved a variety of adaptations to help them resist stress. Adaptation causes permanent changes in the characteristics of the plant that enables the plants to survive. For example; Hydrophytic and Xerophytic Adaptation.
Xerophytic adaptation include: Reduced/rolled culled leaves, thicker waxy cuticles, stomata in pits with hairs, utilize CAM physiology, and lower growth on ground. Examples of adaptation include: Anatomical changes, Physiological and biochemical responses, Molecular responses, Defensive adaptations and Cold acclimation.
ESCAPE: The plant can escape the stress by growing when the conditions are normal and not growing during stress situation. For example, plants growing in specific seasons.

3. ACCLIMATION: Plants can also adapt to environmental changes throughout their lifetime through a process called acclimation. These are the non heritables with temporary physiological modification. It involves the adjustment of the plants in response to changing environmental factors including processes like osmotic adjustment in the plant. It allows plants to cope with the constant variation in their environment. It involves the differential expression of specific genes in response to a particular stress. Plants can develop tolerance, resistance, or avoidance mechanisms to overcome environmental stresses.
Both Adaptation and acclimation results from integrated events occurring at morphological to cellular ( cellular response) to biochemical ( biochemical response) and molecular ( molecular Response) level.
a. CELLULAR RESPONSES: This is a cell’s reaction to environmental signals, which allows plants to adapt to changes in their environment. This include changes in cell cycle, changes in cell division, and changes in cell wall
b. BIOCHEMICAL RESPONSES: These are the changes that occur in a plant’s biochemical processes when it adapts to different environments. This include changes in osmoregulatory compounds such as production of proline and Glycine
c. MOLECULAR RESPONSES: Plants have several molecular responses to environmental changes which including:
Heat stress response, Cold acclimation, perception of stress signals, altered pattern of gene expression etc.

TEMPERATURE/ HEAT STRESS

Plants can adapt to heat stress in two ways:

1. BASAL HEAT TOLERANCE (BHT): The plant’s natural ability to tolerate heat stress

2. ACQUIRED HEAT TOLERANCE (AHT): It is also known as priming or acclimation. This is when the plant acquires the ability to withstand extreme heat .
Heat tolerance is a highly specific trait, and even closely related species may vary significantly in their ability to tolerate heat
CATEGORIES OF TEMPERATURE STRESS
There are two categories of temperature stress:

1. High temperature stress

2. Low temperature stress
HIGH TEMPERATURE STRESS
This is also known as heat stress. It is a major environmental stress that limits plant growth, metabolism and productivity. Plants are unable to survive above 45°C. Although, pollen grains can survive up to 120°C and the seeds can survive up to 70°C. The CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism) plants such as obuntia and Cacti are adapted to high temperature and tolerate up to 65°C.
Plants exposed to high temperature stress suffer from severe and sometimes lethal, adverse effects. The response of plants to high temperature (HT) vary with the degree and duration of HT and the plant type.
EFFECTS OF HIGH TEMPERATURE STRESS

1. During high temperature, the membrane stability reduces due to excess fluidity of lipids in the membrane. thus, there is disruption of membrane and cell compartment.

2. Disruption of water splitting or oxygen evolving system of photosystem 11

3. Both photosynthesis and respiration are inhibited at high temperature

4. Chloroplast enzymes become unstable

5. High temperature can lead to loss of 3-D structure of certain enzyme.
ADAPTATION OF PLANTS TO HIGH TEMPERATURE STRESS
Plants produce structures to adapt to high temperature stress. Such adaptive structures include:

1. Reflective wax on leaf surface

2. Plants produce small leaves dimension

3. Presence of sunken stomata

4. Vertical orientation of leaf

5. Other structures: Plants can have spines instead of leaves, or develop buds and fruit that drop during extreme heat stress.

6. Behavior: Plants can go dormant to avoid growing during the hottest part of the year.

7. Physiological: Plants can alter their metabolism to change cell water and salt content, proteins, and phytohormones.
In response to sudden rise in temperature, plants produce heat shock proteins.

HOW PLANTS RESPOND TO HEAT STRESS
a.. Plants can perceive changes in temperature through sensors in different cellular compartments.
b. Chloroplasts are considered sensors of heat stress because they change the dynamics in response to ROS/redox changes at the cellular level.
C. One of the best known means of responding to potential damage caused by high temperatures is through the synthesis of HSPs.
d. Heat stress in crop plants has also been associated with an increase in antioxidative capacity with the synthesis of various enzymatic and nonenzymatuvq ROS scavenging and detoxification system.
e. short term response include, leaf orientation, transpirational cooling and changes in membrane lipid composition.
MECHANISMS OF HEAT STRESS TOLERANCE IN PLANT
Heat stress can negatively affect plant growth and production by impacting photosynthesis, respiration, water balance, and membrane stability.
a. Heat shock proteins
b. Antioxidant enzymes.
long term morphological adaptations
C. Hormones
d. short term avoidance or acclimation mechanism
e. High temperature tolerance mechanisms
f. thermosensors

a. HEAT SHOCK PROTEINS:
When plants experience heat stress, they increase the production of heat shock proteins (HSPs), which are chaperone proteins that help repair proteins and maintain metabolic processes. The proteins function as molecular chaperones and regulate protein folding, assembling, translocation and degradation. Examples of HSPs include:  HSP 100, HSP 90, HSP 70, HSP 60, HSP 40 and small HSPs 
b. ANTIOXIDANT ENZYMES
Plants produce enzymes that scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide, hydroxyl radicals, and hydrogen peroxide. These enzymes include superoxide dismutases, catalase, monodehydroascorbate reductase, and glutathione reductase.
c. HORMONES
Plants produce hormones, such as brassinosteroids (BRs), Cytokinins (CKs), Ethylene (ET), Abscisic acid (ABA), Salicylic acid (SA),Jasmonic acid (JA), Melatonin and Isoprenoids. , that act as chemical messengers to help plants respond to heat stress.
d. SHORT-TERM RESPONSES
Plants can respond to sudden heat stress with short-term mechanisms, such as changing leaf orientation, transpirational cooling, and altering membrane lipid composition.
e. LONG-TERM ADAPTATIONS
Plants can evolve long-term adaptations to heat stress, such as changing leaf orientation, transpirational cooling, or altering membrane lipid composition.
f. THERMOSENSORS
Thermosensors are proteins that detect elevated temperatures and alter their structure or activity to signal the cell. They are activated directly by heat and do not require upstream signaling components. They may be made up of DNA, RNA, protein, or lipids. Examples of thermosensors include: Unfolded protein sensors, Phychrome B (phyB), TWA1, and TT3.1 etc.
HEAT STRESS AVIODANCE MECHANISM
Plants uses a number of mechanisms to avoid heat stress. Such mechanisms include: Short-term avoidance
(Plants can change their leaf orientation, reduce water loss by closing stomata, and alter their membrane lipid), Early maturation, Reducing solar radiation, larger xylem vessels, and cooling through transpiration, compositions etc.

HEAT STRESS TOLERANCE MECHANISM
Some major tolerance mechanisms include:
a. Heat shock rotein
b. ion transporters
c. late embryogenesis abundant ( LEA) proteins
d. osmoprotectants
e. antioxidant defence, and factors involved in signaling cascades and
f. transcriptional control
g. Gene expression
All these are essential significant to counteract the stress effect.

a. HEAT SHOCK PROTEINS (HSPs): HSPs are expressed when plants sense heat shock, and they reduce protein misfolding and aggregation.
b. Ion TRANSPORTERS: These help offset biochemical and physiological changes caused by stress.
c. ANTIOXIDANT ENZYMES: These enzymes detoxify reactive oxygen species (ROS) like hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals, and superoxide. They are found in every cell of all plant types. The enzymes include :
Superoxide dismutase (SOD) -( removes superoxide radicals by converting them to hydrogen peroxide and oxygen ), Catalase (CAT)- ( removes hydrogen peroxide by converting it to water and oxygen ), Peroxidase (POX)- (Scavenges hydrogen peroxide in the extracellular space ), Glutathione peroxidase (GPX) -(Reduces hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radicals to water and lipid alcohols ) and others include Glutathione reductase (GR) and Ascorbate peroxidase (APX) etc.

d. OSMOPROTECTANTS: These are small, organic molecules that help plants survive extreme osmotic stress. They are found in the cytoplasm and can help plants tolerate heat stress. They  include proline, glycine betaine, and trehalose.
e. HORMONES: These include abscisic acid, gibberellic acids, jasmonic acids, brassinosterioids, and salicylic acid.
f. CELL MEMBRANE STABILITY: Cell Membrane Stability is the most important physiological parameter often used as a screening tool for heat tolerance. Plants maintain cell membrane stability to resist heat stress. When plants are exposed to heat, the cell membrane can become damaged, which can lead to a number of issues such as ion leakage, increased permeability, enzyme inactivation and protein denaturation etc.
g. GENE EXPRESSION: Heat stress changes the expression of genes that protect plants from heat stress. These genes code for proteins that detoxify, transport, and regulate osmotic balance. Some of the gene expression mechanism include : Heat shock transcription factors (HSTFs) and heat shock proteins (HSPs), Hormone-related genes like MYB, EIN3, LOX2, AOC, OPR3 and JMT, Epigenetic regulation, and Genes involved in raffinose biosynthesis.

ANTIOXIDANT DEFFENS IN RESPONSE TO HEAT -INDUCED OXIDATIVE STRESS

It has been observed that catalase (CAT) , ascorbate peroxide (APX) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) showed an initial increase in activities before declining at 50°C, while peroxide (POX) and glutathione reductase (GR) activities decline at all temperatures ranging from 20 to 50°C. In general, total antioxidant activities is at a maximum at 35 to 40°C in the tolerant varieties and at 30°C in the susceptible ones.
MECHANISM OF SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF HEAT TOLERANCE
. To generate response in specific cellular compartments or tissue against a certain stimuli, interaction of cofactor and signaling molecules are required.
. Signaling molecules are involved in activation of stress responsive genes. There are various signaling transduction molecules related to stress responsive gene activation
. some broad group of those are the Ca-dependent protein kinase (CDPKs) , mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK/MPKs) , No, sugar, phytohormones.
. These molecules together with transcriptional factors activate stress responsive genes.
MOLECULAR AND BIOTECHNOLOGICAL STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT OF HEAT STRESS TOLERANCE IN PLANTS.
HEAT SHOCK PROTEINS
In response to sudden rise in temperature, plants produces proteins called heat shock proteins(HSPs). The proteins are of different sizes depending on the rise in temperature. The proteins can be expressed during heat, cold, salinity and pathogen stresses.
FUNCTIONS OF THE PROTEINS

1. CELL PROTECTION: HSPs help cells survive stressful conditions, such as infection or inflammation. Thus, protect cells from severe damage

2. THERMOTOLERANT: They protect cells from high temperature called thermotolerance

3. PROTEIN FOLDING: Interact with other proteins to create a folding of proteins
and prevent them from aggregating.

4. PROTEIN DEGRADATION: HSPs carry old proteins to the proteasome for recycling. 5. Immune system: HSPs play a role in the immune system, including antigen presentation and tumor immunosurveillance.

5. STRESS TOLERANCE: HSPs help plants tolerate biotic and abiotic stress.

6. REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES: HSPs detoxify reactive oxygen species (ROS) by regulating antioxidant enzymes.
TYPES OF HEAT SHOCK PROTEINS
In plants, Heat Shock Proteins (HSPs) can be grouped into five different families

1. HSP100 (or ClpB)

2. HSP90

3. HSP70 (or Dnak)

4. HSP60 (or GroE) and

5. HSP 20 ( or small HSP, sHSP)

The HSP 70 and HSP60 proteins are among the most highly conserved proteins in nature, consistent with a fundamental role in response to heat stress.
LOW TEMPERATURE STRESS
Low temperature stress can negatively impact plant life. Some of these impacted areas include: cell survival, cell division, photosynthesis, water transport, growth, development, and reproduction.
Some of the events used by plants to help them tolerate low temperatures, including: Gene expression changes, Activation of the ROS scavenging system, and Biochemical and physiological modifications.
TYPES OF LOW TEMPERATURE HEAT STRESS
There are two types of low temperature stress.
a. Chilling
b. Freezing

CHILLING: When the temperature is low for normal growth but not low enough to form ice. The temperatures between 0–15°C can injure plants without forming ice crystals. Chilling temperatures can vary depending on the plant’s tolerance and the air temperature and wind speed.
EFFECT OF CHILLING

1. Slow growth

2. Discolouration or necrosis of tissues

3. Germination: Chilling stress can severely impair germination and seedling vigor.

4. Leaf development: Chilling stress can delay leaf development and cause necrotic lesions on leaves.

5. Flowering: Chilling stress can delay flowering and disturb pollen and gametophyte development.

6. Loss of membrane function

7. Decrease in photosynthesis: Chilling stress can inhibit a plant’s photosynthetic capacity.

7. In chilling sensitive plants, the saturated lipids is higher which tends to solidify at low temperature leading to membrane damage.

8. Reactive oxygen species: Chilling stress increases reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plant metabolic pathways.

9. Chlorophyll decomposition: Chilling stress can accelerate chlorophyll decomposition in leaves.

PROTECTION: exposure to cool but non freezing temperature.

FREEZING:

Temperatures below 0°C that cause ice to form within plant tissues. 
EFFECT OF FREEZING

1. Ice formation in intercellular spaces resulting in cellular water movement towards ice.

2. Shrinkage of protoplasm

3. Destruction of chlorophyll

4. Change in membrane potential

5. Reduced growth: Freezing stress can restrict plant growth and development.

6. Reduced yield: Freezing stress can reduce crop yield, especially during the reproductive phase of the plant life cycle.

7. Delayed maturity: Freezing stress can delay the maturity of crops.
PROTECTION STRATEGIES
Anti-freezing proteins/thermal hysteresis proteins (THPs). They bind to ice surface preventing their growth

SOME DROUGHT TOLERANT AND PLANTS TOLERANT TO HEAT STRESS

1. AGAVE (Agave americana): This plant is also called century plant. The specie is a monocot native to the arid regions of the Americas. It is primarily known for its  succulent  and  xerophytic species that typically form large rosettes of strong, fleshy leaves and they resemble pineapple leaves. Most agaves are monocarpic, meaning that they die after flowering. They possess shallow roots which they use to absorb any drop of water in the soil. Their flowers are spiked

2. PRICKLY PEAR( OPUNTIA): Prickly pear cactus, is a genus of flowering plants in the cactus family Cactaceae. They are known for their flavorful fruit and showy flowers. They are well-adapted to aridity This Cacti specie produce white, yellow or red flowers. They possess waxy skin that protect then from the sun. They also produce fruits. They possess high water storage capacity in their leaves which is spineous and can survive in USDA planting zones.

3. MOSS ROSE ( Portulaca grandiflora): This is a succulent flowering plant in the purslane family Portulacaceae, native to southern Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay and often cultivated in gardens. It has many common names, including rose moss, eleven o’clock, Mexican rose, moss rose, sun rose, table rose, rock rose, and moss-rose purslane. It is a popular bedding plant. It possess beautiful bloom of flowers which are purple, yellow and red in colour. They have thick fleshy leaves that make them survive in places where other plants do not survive. In most conditions, they disperse seeds on their own which gives reasons for their wide spread in nature.

4. LAVANDER (Lavandula spica): The common name is lavender, a Drought tolerant plant especially when established. They provide great aroma that helps cleans the mind and body. They are drought tolerant when they get pass their first year and become hardy. They can also survive in USDA growing zones. They produce stunning blue purple flowers with silvery aromatic leaves.

5. TRUMPET VINE ( Campsis radicans) : The trumpet vine,is also called several names such as yellow trumpet vine or trumpet creeper (also known in North America as cow-itch vine or hummingbird vine), is a species of flowering plant in the trumpet vine family Bignoniaceae, native to eastern North America, and naturalized elsewhere. It grows up to 10 metres (33 feet), it is a vigorous, deciduous woody vine, notable for its showy trumpet-shaped flowers which are orange in coloure. They grow quickly and need to be occasionally cut back. Under shoddy areas, they will do well. Once established, they do not need much water.

6. HEN AND CHICKS ( SEMPERVIVUM): Hen and chicken is a common name for several unrelated groups of plants. The name refers to the tendency of certain of these species to reproduce vegetatively by means of plantlets. These tiny plants are produced by the mother plant, and take root on touching the ground. They are rossetts that grow close to the ground and in crevices. They can survive in poor soils with low drainage.
Some of the general include Sempervivum , Echeveria and Jovibarba,

7. CREEPING THYME (Thymus serpyllum): This plant is also known by different common names such as: Breckland thyme, Breckland wild thyme, wild thyme, creeping thyme, or elfin thyme. It is a species of flowering plant in the mint family Lamiaceae, native to most of Europe and North Africa. It is a low, usually prostrate subshrub growing to 2 cm (1 in) tall with creeping stems up to 10 cm (4 in) long. The oval evergreen leaves are 3–8 mm long. The strongly scented flowers are either lilac, pink-purple, magenta, or a rare white, all 4–6 mm long and produced in clusters. They are native to drought and hot condition areas. For example, meditanaerian. They produce green foliage and resembles a carpet afar. They are good for stone pathways and produce beautiful aroma.

8. BOUGAINVILLEA: Bougainvillea is a flowering plants, native to South America, and in the Nyctaginaceae family. They are woody vines with a scrambling habit. It is an excellent choice for drought, heat and saline areas. It produce red, pinch yellow, purple or creamy coloured flowers. They prefer warm, dry and well drained soil conditions and love heat.

9. BLANKET FLOWERS: They are called flamedazers because they produce a flower with red interior and yellow petal round it that resembles a flame. They can also be of any shade of yellow, orange, red, purplish, brown, white, or bicolored. They are found in wild and some tamed to grow in home gardens. They are annual or perennial herbs or subshrubs, sometimes with rhizomes. The stem is usually branching and erect to a maximum height around 80 centimeters (31.5 inches). They do well in full sun and poor soils.

10. CALIFONIA LILAC ( Ceanothus spp) : This is a nitrogen-fixing shrubs and small tree in the buckthorn family (Rhamnaceae). It has several common names in the genus such as buckbrush, California lilac, soap bush, or just ceanothus. This plant produce small dark green leaves with light blue or white flowers. They do not need water under hot weather conditions.

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A nutrient imbalance in soil occurs when the amount of essential nutrients for plants is either too low or too high or when it is insufficient or in excess. This can negatively impact plant growth and soil health:
PLANT GROWTH:
When nutrients are deficient, plants may be stunted or have a reduced yield and quality. When nutrients are in excess, the plant may lose nutrients from the soil.
SOIL HEALTH:
Nutrient imbalances can lead to soil acidification, which reduces the availability of nutrients for plants. They can also change the composition of soil biota, like microorganisms and insects, which can disrupt the soil food web.
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION:
Nutrient imbalances can contribute to environmental degradation and greenhouse gas emissions. Misuse or overuse of fertilizers can harm soil, water, and human and animal health.
Nutrient imbalance can be nutrient in excess or nutrient insufficient. The build up of surplus nutrients in excess of immediate crop can lead to nutrient losses. This causes an economic inefficiency in nutrient use by farmers and also a source of potential harm to the environment. Water bodies become polluted, air and soil also become polluted, and can also lead to greenhouse gas emission. Some nutrients, like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, are macronutrients that plants need in larger quantities. Other nutrients, like iron, manganese, and zinc, are micronutrients that plants need in smaller quantities.
Some nutrients can compete with others for plant uptake, even when soil levels are sufficient ,while some becomes fixed to the soil. For example, in clay soils, phosphorus can become tightly bound to soil particles, making it less available for plants.
Soil nutrient balance is affected by nutrient management in crops. A poor nutrient management technique results in an imbalance in the soil nutrient status which could have a long-term negative impact on crop production.
The nutrient balance is defined as the difference between the nutrient inputs entering a farming system (mainly livestock manure and fertilisers) and the nutrient outputs leaving the system (the uptake of nutrients for crop and pasture production). Inputs of nutrients are necessary in farming systems as they are critical in maintaining and raising crop and other plant productivity.
EFFECT OF EXCESSIVE NUTRIENTS OR NUTRIENT TOXICITY IN SOIL
Soil nutrients sources can be from fertilizers, soil minerals and organic matter. Soils with excessive organic fertilizer like compost and particularly manure, tend to develop high concentrations of nutrients such as ammonium, calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium. These soils can also develop high concentrations of bicarbonates, carbonates and hydroxyls. This ( excessive nutrients) can inhibit the uptake of other nutrients ( antagonism and synagism ), resulting in deficiencies. For example, high ammonium can inhibit the uptake of calcium, magnesium and potassium.

High concentrations of base cations like calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium are associated with increased soil alkalinity.
Highly alkaline soils tend to have a high pH (a measure of acidity), and many nutrients become less available in high pH soils. As a result, plants may exhibit nutrient deficiency symptoms, despite an excess of nutrients in the soil.
Another issue of soils that receive excessive compost is the potential for increased soluble salts to levels that would cause salt toxicity.

Optimum nutrient levels listed on soil test results represent the range at which plant growth is maximized. Nutrient levels that are above optimum do not improve plant growth. In addition, excessive nutrients can cause adverse effects on plant growth, increase the potential for environmental contamination due to leaching, and represents a waste of resources. In particular, above optimum, nitrogen and phosphorus levels can lead to excessive plant and algal growth in waterways that can degrade drinking water, fisheries, and recreational areas. High potassium can lead to an imbalance of base saturation levels as well as high soluble salts. Also, high organic matter levels can cause poor drainage. Areas where lawns or turf are being grown should have organic matter levels less than 5%. In general, organic matter levels greater than 8% in outdoor growing environments are unnecessary and can cause the issues above.
In high tunnels, soluble salts can accumulate to excessive levels because leaching is minimal.
Composted manure is generally higher in salts than composted vegetative matter.
Raw manure can be very high in salts and ammonium and is not recommended for use in high tunnels.

Other effects of excessive nutrients in soil include:

1. PLANT GROWTH:
Too much of any nutrient can prevent plants from absorbing other nutrients, which can lead to deficiencies. It can also cause abnormal growth, such as stunted or excessive growth, leaf discoloration, and necrotic spotting. Apart from these, excessive nutrients, or nutrient toxicity can affect plant growth by causing Wilting: Leaves may wilt , Defoliation: Plants may lose leaves ,
Stress: Plants may become stressed and weakened, making them more susceptible to disease and insects , Scorching: Plants may look scorched  and
Cellular damage: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by high levels of micronutrients can cause extensive cellular damage 

2. SOIL HEALTH:
Excess nutrients can create high salt concentrations in the soil, which can harm beneficial microorganisms.

3. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION:
Excessive nutrients can lead to leaching, which can contaminate the environment.

4. IT CAN ALSO LEAD TO RUNOFF:
Excess fertilizer that plants don’t take up can be carried and deposited by water into watersheds, which can harm wildlife.

5. IT CAN ALSO CAUSE EUTROPHICATION: If a water body has high nutrient levels it is said to be eutrophic; the process is called  eutrophication.
High levels of nutrients in waterways can cause harmful algal blooms and loss of aquatic life . The high density of these green algae on the water body will block sunlight from penetrating the water causing larger plants under the surface to die and decompose. Apart from this, the sudden algal bloom can die off quickly, decay by the action of bacteria and cause deoxygenation of the water. This is a major problem of eutrophication. Also, nitrate can cause high growth of cyanobacterias in water. Some species of cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae) that flourish under these conditions produce toxins that cause liver, nerve and skin problems in humans and animals.

Eutrophication also encourages the growth of larger plants, such as the floating and invasive water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) which can cover large areas of lakes. When these plants die, they add to the problems of deoxygenation caused by decaying organic material.

6. WATER QUALITY:
Excessive nutrients in water can have a number of harmful effects on water quality. Such harmful effects including:
i. DRINKING WATER TREATMENT:
High levels of nitrogen and phosphorus can cause excessive plant and algal growth in waterways, which can degrade drinking water, fisheries, and recreational areas.
Water that contains large amounts of nitrates is unpleasant to drink and can be toxic to humans and animals. In infants, a condition called
Methohemoglobinemia may result. This condition is also known as “blue-baby syndrome”, it is potentially fatal blood disorder that can occur in infants less than six months old. It is associated with nitrates in drinking water.
In addition, Algae and macrophytes bloom can clog filters, corrode intake pipes, and require more chemicals to treat drinking water.
ii. ALGAL BLOOMS:
When there is too much nitrogen and phosphorus in the water, algae grows faster than ecosystems can handle. This can lead to harmful algal blooms (HABs) that can harm the environment and human health.
iii. REDUCED OXYGEN:
The rapid growth of algae can reduce the amount of oxygen available to aquatic life. This can lead to hypoxia, or “dead zones”, where aquatic life cannot survive.
iv. TOXINS:
Algae can produce toxins that can harm people, animals, and aquatic life. These toxins are released into the water when algae cells die or rupture. Some examples of algal toxins include:
Cyanotoxins: Produced by cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae. These toxins can cause skin irritation, nerve damage, and other health effects.
Dinotoxins: Produced by dinoflagellates, these toxins can cause diarrheal shellfish poisoning.
Phycotoxins: Produced by diatoms, these toxins can cause amnesic shellfish poisoning.
v. LOSS OF SPECIES:
When algae die and decompose, it can reduce dissolved oxygen in the water, which can cause organisms to die. If this happens repeatedly, species may be lost from the water.
vi .LOSS OF HABITAT:
Eutrophication can kill off plants that fish depend on for their habitat.
vii. DECREASED VISIBILITY:
Algae can reduce water clarity and visibility, which can make it harder for fish to see prey or predators.

7. WASTE OF RESOURCES:
Using too many nutrients is a waste of resources. Excessive nutrients can cause waste of resources by damaging the environment and harming water quality.
Excess nutrients, mainly nitrogen and phosphorus, cause excessive algal bloom. This results in consumption of large amounts of oxygen, which fish, shellfish, and other organisms need to survive. It
makes water cloudy, reducing the ability of aquatic life to find food. It can also clog the gills of fish and other aquatic organisms that uses gills to breath. It can also block light that is needed for plants, such as seagrasses, to grow. And it produces toxin that can harm people, animals, and aquatic life
CAUSES OF SOIL -NUTTIENTS IMBALANCE
Two main causes of nutrient imbalance include impoper pH and nutrient level. Other causes include various factors such as: imbalanced fertilization, soil compaction, poor root health, and other environmental stresses.
Lack of nutrients will lead to low soil fertility. Thus, causing nutrient deficiency and nutrient deficiency symptoms in plants. Too little or too much of any nutrient can lead to nutrient imbalance.
The following are causes of nutrient imbalance:

A. IMPROPER SOIL pH: pH is the measure of soil acidity or alkalinity. It affect soil health and some nutrient availability for uptake by plant.
Soil that is too acidic or alkaline can affect how plants access nutrients.
CAUSES OF SOIL ACIDITY
a. High rainfall
b. Acidic rain
c. Fertilizers
d. Weathering oxidation
EFFECT OF SOIL ACIDITY
a. It affect crop yield
b. crop suitability
c. crop-plant availability
d. soil microbial activities
Most plants can only survive at neutral pH to slightly alkaline pH (that is, 7.5 to 8.5)
at pH 5.5 or lesser, Al3+, H+ and Mn2+ becomes toxic , while P, Ca2+,MO and Mg3+ becomes deficient in the soil.

At pH 7.5 and above, Fe, P, and Zn becomes deficient, HCO3 becomes excessive and Ca, Mg and K becomes imbalance.
CAUSES OF SOIL ALKALINITY
a. Drought
b. Weathering
c. High concentration of HCO3
FACTORS THAT AFFECT SOIL pH
Soil pH is affected by
a. land use and management
b. vegetation type: The type of vegetation in an area can have great impact on soil pH. For example, forest land are more acidic than grassland. Conversely, the conversion of both forest land and grass land into crop land can affect soil pH. The changes are caused by
I. loss of organic matter
ii. removal of soil minerals when crops are harvested
iii. erosion of soil layer
iv. effect of Nitrogen and sulphur Fertilizers
Note that addition of nitrogen and sulfur can lower soil pH over time. Soil pH that are too high or too low leads to:
i. deficiency of soil nutrients
ii. decline in crop yield
iii. deterioration of soil health
iv. decline in microbial activities.
MEASURES THAT LIMIT OR CORRECT ACIDIFICATION
A. pH outside the desired range:
a. add sulfur to lower pH
b. add lime to increase the pH
-nutrient deficiency at low pH and toxicity include Fe, MN and AL

Nutrient deficiency and toxicity at high pH include CO32-, HCO3-,AlO4 and toxicity.
Also, outside the pH range, some nutrients can be made available. For example, Al at low pH.
HOW TO CORRECT pH

i. Apply the correct amount of nitrogen fertilizer

ii. liming raise pH of acidic soils

iii. Add sulfur to lower soil pH of alkaline soils

iv. Diversify crop rotation to interrupt acidifying effect of Nitrogen fertilizers

v. Application of manure and other organic materials that has high calcium and bicarbonate.
B. NUTRIENT INTERACTION
The essential plant nutrients must be balanced to ensure plant growth and production. Deficiency of one nutrient cannot be compensated by surplus of the other nutrient. Nutrient interact with each other either synagistically to increase the uptake of one nutrient or antagonistically to reduce the uptake of another nutrient.
Mulders chart can be used to determine nutrient interaction. An antagonize element may be present at adequate level and the plant will not have access to it. The only way to make such nutrient available is to add other nutrients that will knock them out and make them available for plant uptake.

Competing of nutrients at uptake site of the root.
Increase K will hinder Mg, B, N and P utilization etc.
C. IMBALANCED FERTILIZATION: Using fertilizers incorrectly or in excess can lead to nutrient imbalances. This imbalance can be minimized by applying the appropriate rate of fertilizer according to the crop’s demand. Increasing the application of nutrients (NPK) using inorganic fertilizers increased the available nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium contents in soil for for some crops. The use of NPK fertilizers is critical for restoring soil nutrients and closing the yield gap. Soil fertility can also drop along the hills. The drop in soil fertility in the hills is increased by a decrease in organic matter content. Similarly, applying an inadequate amount of K fertilizer over multiple years may lead to K deficit and reduction in crop yield.
D. SOIL COMPACTION: Compacted soil can make it harder for roots to grow and absorb nutrients. Roots that do grow in compacted soil are often shallow and malformed.

Nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are non available to crops in compacted soils due to the following factors:
a. Reduced oxygen: Compaction reduces the amount of oxygen in the soil, which affects the availability of nitrogen. When oxygen levels in soil is low, nitrogen in the soil becomes less available to plants by causing denitrification. Low soil oxygen levels results in anaerobic bacteria using nitrate as an oxygen source. The nitrate is converted to gaseous nitrogen oxides or N2 gas. These gaseous forms of nitrogen are then lost to the atmosphere and are unavailable to plants.
b. Low concentrations: Compaction reduces the concentration and mobility of nutrients like phosphorus and potassium in soil solutions. It can reduce the mobility of phosphorus and potassium in soil by making the soil less porous, which limits the movement of nutrients. Compaction can also restrict root growth. Roots are less able to penetrate the soil, thus, limiting their ability to access nutrients and moisture. Compaction can also interfere with drainage. It can cause extended periods of saturation and also reduce permeability (As soil is compacted, the void ratio decreases, reducing permeability).
Soil compaction do affect the soil physical properties and plant growth, and through the effects on aeration all biological soil processes are affected

E. EXCESSIVE LEACHING: Leaching is the process of removing soluble substances from the top layer of soil through the action of precipitation or irrigation. The rate of leaching increases with heavy rainfall, over irrigation, high temperatures, and the removal of protective vegetation.
Leaching can be beneficial for crops by transporting minerals from topsoil down to roots zones. However, excessive leaching can lead to nutrient imbalances, which can cause poor plant growth and reduced crop yield. Leaching removes vital nutrients and micronutrients, such as water-soluble boron, nitrogen etc from the soil, causing potential deficiencies in crops. For example, Boron deficiency result in distorted or misshapen leaves, thickened leaves, brittle leaves, hollow centers in developing curds or heads, abnormal flower development. And Nitrogen deficiency result in poor plant growth and reduced crop yield etc.

F. POOR ROOT HEALTH:
Root health has a significant impact on a plant’s ability to absorb nutrients from the soil. The roots are the primary interface between the plant and its environment and it is the organ plants use for absorbing nutrients from the soil solution. Root diseases or poor root development can make it harder for plants to absorb nutrients. Root health can affects nutrient uptake through the following ways:
a. Root hairs
Roots have thousands of root hairs that increase their absorbent surface area. Damage to these root hairs can make it difficult for the plant to absorb nutrients and water.
b. Morphological ( such as diameter, surface area, cell wall structure, root hairs, and length) and physiological properties ( anatomical features) of roots and their accompanied tissues also affect nutrient uptake and transport. The root traits( Root traits are characteristics of a plant’s roots that can be morphological, physiological, anatomical, chemical, or biological such as root thickness, longevity, lateral root density, root tip diameter etc ) related to the properties also depend on the kinds of nutrients and their mobility in the soil. For example, plants may grow thinner and produce deeper roots to acquire water and nutrients during droughts.
EFFECTS OF NUTRIENT INBALANCE IN SOIL
Some effects of nutrient imbalances in soil include:
a. REDUCED PLANT GROWTH: Plants may not be able to absorb the nutrients they need to grow.
b. SOIL ACIDIFICATION: Soil can become more acidic, which can reduce soil fertility and the availability of nutrients for plants.
c. CHANGES IN SOIL BIOTA: The composition of soil microorganisms and insects can be affected, which can disrupt the soil food web.
d. ALTERED SOIL CHEMISTRY: The availability of nutrients for plants can be reduced
BALANCING SOIL NUTRIENTS
Soil nutrient balance is the equilibrium between the nutrients that enter the soil and the nutrients that leaves the soil. It’s important for maintaining soil health and productivity. Some ways of maintaining soil nutrient balance include:

1. INCREASE SOM: SOM Prevents clay particles from forming soil mass by adding organic matter. SOM improves pore spaces, increases microbial activities, act as sponge to hold more water etc and helps buffer soil pH. Organic matter also improve soil texture, structure, and chemical balance. Organic matter can be added to soil by using compost, manure, or cover crops.
2.COMPOST: Compost helps balance soil nutrients in a number of ways: It can assist in nutrient release. Compost gradually releases nutrients as organic matter decomposes.  It assist in converting nutrients into available form. Beneficial microorganisms in compost convert nutrients into forms that plants can use. 
Compost also improves soil structure, which helps retain nutrients and allows root systems to access nutrients more effectively.  Compost also assist in maintaining Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio. The ideal carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio for composting is around 30:1, or 30 parts carbon for each part nitrogen by weight. 
Other benefits of compost including:
-Preventing soil erosion
-Assisting in stormwater management
-Promoting healthier plant growth
-Conserving water and
-Reducing waste

3. TEST SOIL: A soil test will provide information on the current levels of nutrients in the soil, including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other nutrients. After the test, the amount of nutrients needed can then be calculated and applied so as not to provide in excess.

4. ADD FERTILIZER: After soil test and the soil shows low levels of key nutrients, then additional commercial fertilizer can be applied to revitalize the soil.

5. PROTECT TOPSOIL: The topsoil is the richest horizon with abundance amount of nutrients and microbial activities. When the topsoil is left bare, loss of nutrient from the layer is high. Therefore, with mulch or cover crops, the topsoil layer can maintain its nutrient level.

6. ROTATE CROPS: Rotating crops can help maintain soil nutrients especially when legumineous crops are included in the rotation. Also, planting crops with different root depth can mine nutrients from the various layers of the soil and not overexploit nutrients from a single layer.

7. LIMIT USE OF CHEMICALS: Farmers should avoid using chemicals or limit their usage. They can only choose chemicals unless there’s no other option.

8. MAINTAIN SOIL MOISTURE: Adequate soil moisture can promote microbial populations and activity. Soil moisture is also needed to dissolve the nutrients and put them in available form for plant uptake.

9. MAINTAIN SOIL pH: Maintain the optimum pH for the soil is essential for optimum plant growth.

10. MAINTAIN SOIL AERATION: Good soil aeration can promote microbial populations and activity. Therefore, soil pore spaces must be improved for optimum soil aeration.

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Nutrient movement in soils and nutrient absorption by plants is a complex and essential process for the growth and development of all plant species. Plants rely on a diverse range of nutrients, which are essential and they can be divided into:

1. Macronutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur and

2. Micronutrients such as iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, molybdenum, and chlorine.

According to Arnon’s Law of Essentiality which state that for a nutrient to be considered essential, a plant must be unable to complete its life cycle without it, and the nutrient must play a specific role in the plant’s metabolic processes. Lack or inadequacy of these essential nutrients leads to deficiency symptoms in plants. For these nutrients to be absorbed by plants, they must be in their ionic forms and dissolved in soil solution. These nutrient sources can be from fertilizers , organic matter, and minerals. Their movement in the soil is influenced by factors such as soil texture, pH levels, moisture content, and root activity. mechanisms govern nutrient movement in soil.

MECHANISMS OF NUTRIENT MOVEMENT IN SOIL. Nutrients move in soil through three main mechanisms:

1. MASS FLOW: It requires water to carry dissolved nutrients in the soil. Nutrients move with water towards plant roots through transpiration, percolation, or evaporation.  The amount of nutrients transported depends on the rate of water flow.

2. DIFFUSION: Nutrients move from areas of higher concentration in the soil to lower concentration at the root surface. This process is similar to adding sugar to water and is relatively slow compared to mass flow.

3. ROOT INTERCEPTION: Roots physically come into contact with nutrient-rich soil particles. 
THEORIES THAT BACK NUTRIENT ABSORPTION BY PLANT ROOTS
When it comes to nutrient absorption by plant roots, some theories and mechanisms come into play……

a. The Carbonic Acid Exchange Theory: This theory explains how plant roots release carbon dioxide, which, in interaction with soil water, forms carbonic acid, aiding in the exchange of nutrient ions.
b. Bennet-Clark’s Protein Lecithin Theory: This theory describe how certain specific proteins and lipids in root cell membranes play a role in selective nutrient absorption, potentially involving carrier proteins.
c. The Contact Exchange Theory: This theory discusses the importance of direct contact between nutrient ions and root cell membranes.

d. Donnan’s Equilibrium Theory: The theory discuss the role of electrical charge and ion gradients in root nutrient absorption, while Ion Pumps and ATPases represent active transport mechanisms that move nutrients against concentration gradients.
e. The Carrier Hypothesis: This describes the involvement of specific carrier proteins in nutrient transport.
f. Lundegardh Theory (Electro-Chemical Theory): Describe the effect of electrochemical gradients and potential differences in root cell membranes.
Nutrient uptake can occur through active or passive transport, depending on nutrient type and environmental conditions.
CONCEPTS OF NUTRIENT MOBILITY AND IMMOBILITY
There are two concept to nutrient mobility and immobility.

1 . Nutrient mobility and immobility in plants. And

2. Nutrient mobility and immobility in soil.

The mobility of a nutrient in the soil is associated with how much of the nutrients can be leached . While conversely, The mobility of a nutrient within the plant determines where  nutrient deficiency  symptoms show up.
There are two types of nutrients based on nutrient transprtation;
a. mobile nutrients
b. immobile nutrients

The terms “Mobile and immobile nutrients” refer to the transportability of nutrients within the plant and soil. In the case of plants, the classification is primarily oriented on terrestrial plants and not in aquatic plants. Transport of nutrients in aquatic plants is different for some substances. The aquatic plant tissues are submerged in the nutrient solution for uptake.

MOBILE NUTRIENTS IN PLANTS: A mobile nutrient is a substance that can move within a plant to where it is needed most, usually new growth. When a plant is deficient in mobile nutrients, the first signs appear in the older leaves. Examples of these mobile nutrients include:
Nitrogen in the form of nitrate, phosphorus (P) in the form of phosphate, potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), chlorine (Cl), zinc (Zn) and molybdene (Mo). These nutrients are transported to new growth from the older leaves.
The mobility of the nutrients within the plant determines where nutrient deficiency symptoms will show up. Mobile nutrients in plant tissue, like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, can be translocated to newly developing leaves and growing portions of the plant and therefore, result in deficiency symptoms in the lower or older leaves.

IMMOBILE NUTRIENTS IN PLANTS
Immobile nutrients do not move easily within a plant. They are unable to be translocated, so when nutrient supply is low, the new growth is where the deficiency symptoms occur.
When a plant is deficient in immobile nutrients, the first signs appear in the new growth or young leaves. Examples of immobile nutrients include:
Calcium (Ca), sulfur (S), iron (Fe), boron (B) and copper (Cu) are immobile.
Plant do find it difficult to uptake sufficient amounts of immobile nutrients and transport them to the new shoots. Plants can transport immobile nutrients to other areas by making use of chelators. Moreover, aquatic plants can absorb immobile nutrients with their foliage, i.e. directly where they are needed. A deficit of these nutrients in terrestrial plants can be amended by foliar fertilization. Therefore, knowing the mobility of nutrients can help diagnose plant nutrient deficiencies.

MOBILE AND IMMOBILE NUTRIENTS IN THE SOIL
There is a misconception about nutrient mobility in soil and plant. Most people and even soil scientist believe that when a nutrient is said to be mobile within the soil, it is also mobile or can be translocated within the plant.

The mobility of a nutrient in the soil is associated with how much of the nutrients can be leached in the soil . Nitrate or sulfate, for example can easily move with water. Other mobile nutrients in soil include potassium( K) which has low mobility, boron (Bo)and manganese (Mn). A good example of a nutrient that is immobile in soil are phosphorus (P), ammonium ( NH4-), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn).

HOW NUTRIENT MOBILITY AND IMMOBILITY OCCURS IN SOIL
The soil generally is negatively charged and tries to attract positively charged nutrients. Some nutrients are negatively charged like nitrate-nitrogen and will be repelled from the soil exchange site. This will make such negatively charged nutrients to float and move freely in the soil and not held by the soil particles.
For nutrients in soil to be available to plants, they must exist as ions – molecules with either a positive or negative charge.  Ions are simply atoms or molecules with a charge, either positive or negative.  Positively charged ions (+) are called Cations, while negatively charged ions are called Anions (-).  Among all essential nutrients, Boron is an exception because it is available to plants in a non-ionic form (no charge).  Mobility of nutrients is due to the charge of each nutrient , whether +(Cation) or -(Anion) and also the strength of the charge as well.
a. NUTRIENT MOBILITY AND NUTRIENT CHARGES
From elementary physics, it is said that opposites charges attract and thesame charges repell. Hence, positively charged ions (Cations) typical bind to soil while negatively charged ions (Anions) are repelled by soil particles and float freely in soil solutions. These Anions(-) which are repelled by the soil particles float freely in the water in soil. The anions will want to disperse themselves to create an even concentrations in the solution, so they move from higher concentrations area to lower concentrations area.  

b. NUTRIENT MOBILITY AND NUTRIENT STRENGHT
Soil vary in composition so also they vary in charge strength. Soils generally maintain a negative charge with small pockets of positive charges intertwined.  The strength of the soil charge is called the Cation Exchange Capacity which measures the number of cations that can be retained by soil particles.  The higher the CEC, the more Cation nutrients that can be stored in the soil. This gives reason why higher CEC soils are rich in soil nutrients. 

There are exceptions to certain Anions that are mobile in soils.  Certain Anions like phosphorus bind tightly to soil particles. Phosphorus locks up to soil particles and becomes unavailable for plants uptake. This means that when the nutrients ( anions) are applied to the soil, farmers should ensure equal concentration of the Anions both at where the roots exist, and where the roots are not found.  The nutrient (Anion) deficiencies will still therefore exist in the soil. Unlike cations, their deficiencies will only exist when there is lack of or inadequate sources of the Cation to have a direct contact with the root zone.

Other nutrients (Anions) which cannot be binded or held to soil particles are repelled into soil solution and float around the soil particles. They can easily be wash out of the soil or leached.  On the contrary, nutrient cations bind to soil particles, therefore find it difficult to be washed out or leached off the soil even with excessive watering or heavy rain. 

LEACHABLE NUTRIENTS
(MOBILE NURIENTS)
Some nutrients are easily leachable due to certain factors. Such factors include:

1 .TYPES OF NUTRIENTS: Nutrients such as nitrate, sulfate, boron, chloride and salt can easily be leached in the soil. Salts can be leached out of the soil through good drainage system.

2. TILLAGE OPERATION: When nutrients are added to the soil and tillage operation is carried out, the operation will help incorporate the nutrient into the soil, thus, make the nutrients to move down into the soil.
IMMOBILE NUTRIENTS
Immobile nutrients include, phosphorus, zinc, copper, potassium etc. If these nutrients are not placed properly or deep into the soil, they may not be accessible by plant roots. Plants need water to absorb the nutrients.
Immobile nutrients must not be applied to the soil surface as this may cause some problems like
a. loss of money
b. pollution of surface water ( causing algae bloom)
c. wash away by wind or water erosion.
d. Nutrient toxicity

ACTIVITIES OF MOBILE AND IMMOBILE SOIL NUTRIENTS WHEN ABSORBED BY PLANTS

Once mobile and immobile soil nutrients are uptake by plant and get inside the plant, the mobile and immobile nutrients action changes. Mobile nutrients have the ability to move from one place to another within the plant. The plant moves them to where they are most needed which is typically new growth. That is why mobile nutrient deficiencies show up first in old growth. The plant can also pull the mobile nutrients from the old growth parts of the plants to where they are more needed ( new growth areas of the plant). On the other hand, immobile nutrients are permanently positioned (or missing) from when that specific part of the plant has formed. Once they have been put in place, they stay permanently. So, when the plant is growing new shoots, buds, and leaves, if there is an inadequate availability of immobile nutrients available to the roots, deficiencies will show in the new growth as it is developed. Additionally, the deficiencies can not be reversed at the sites where they occur.

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Sesame (Sesamum indicum), is a plant in the family Pedaliacea and genus Sesamum. It is also called several names like simsim,  benne  or  gingelly. It is believed to have likely originated from Asia or East Africa. Today, sesame plant is found in most of the tropical, subtropical, and southern temperate areas of the world. Numerous wild relatives occur in Africa and a smaller number in India. It is widely naturalized in tropical regions around the world and is cultivated for its edible seeds, which grow in pods. The world largest producer of sesame include Sudan, Myanmar, and India. Sesame plant is an erect  annual  plant,  grown for its seeds, which are used as food and flavouring and from which a prized oil is extracted. The aroma and taste of sesame seed are mild and nutlike. The chief constituent of the seed is its fixed oil, which usually amounts to about 44 to 60 percent. Noted for its stability, the oil resists oxidative rancidity. The seeds are also high in protein and are rich in thiamin and vitamin B6.

DESCRIPTION OF SESAME PLANT

THE PLANT: Sesame plant (Sesamum indicum) is made up of different varieties which can grow from about 0.5 to 2.5 metres (2 to 9 feet) tall depending on environmental and climatic conditions. Some varieties have branches, others do not.

STEM: The stem is erect, green, and can be smooth, slightly hairy, or very hairy. It can be square in section with longitudinal furrows, or rectangular or flat.
LEAVES: The leaves can be 3–17.5 cm long and 1–7 cm wide. The lower leaves are broad and sometimes lobed, while the upper leaves are more narrow and lanceolate.
FLOWER: The flowers are tubular, bell-shaped, and can be light purple, rose, or white in colour. They grow in the leaf axils and bloom from late summer to early autumn. One to three flowers appear in the leaf axils when developing.

FRUIT: The fruit is a rectangular capsule that contains the seeds. The capsules are 2–3 cm long and 6–12 mm in diameter.

SEEDS: The hulled seeds are creamy or pearly white, black, yellow, or brown and about 3 mm (0.1 inch) long and have a flattened pear shape. They are rough with wings at either end. The seeds are produced in a capsule. The seed capsules open when dry, allowing the seed to scatter. Hand labour is employed in harvesting to prevent loss of the seeds. With the development of a nonscattering variety of the plant in the mid-20th century, mechanized harvesting of the crop was made possible.

ROOTS STEM : The sesame plant has a well-developed root system with profuse lateral branches. This makes the plant very tolerant of drought.

USES OF SESAME
Sesame seed is the main beneficial part of the plant. This gives reason why sesame is cultivated all over the world.

1. The ancient Egyptians are known to have used the ground seed as grain flour.

2. Chinese At about 5,000 years ago till date, extract oil from the seeds and burned the oil to make soot for the finest Chinese ink blocks.

3. In the past, the Romans ground sesame seeds with cumin to make a pasty spread for bread.

4. The sesame plant was once thought to have mystical powers, and sesame still retains a magical quality, as shown in the expression “open sesame,” from the Arabian Nights tale of “Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves.”

5. Sesame oil is used as a salad oil or cooking oil, in shortening and margarine,

6. The oil is used in the manufacture of soaps, pharmaceuticals, and lubricants.

7. Sesame oil is used as an ingredient in cosmetics.

8. The press cake remaining after the oil is expressed is highly nutritious.

9. The whole seed is used extensively in the cuisines of the Middle East and Asia.

10.  Halvah is a confection made of crushed and sweetened sesame seeds.

11. In Europe and North America the seeds are used to flavour and garnish various foods, particularly breads and other baked goods.

12. Tahini, paste of crushed sesame seeds is widely used in Middle East for cooking.

13. Tahini mixed with garlic, lemon juice, and salt and thinned with water constitutes taratoor, a sauce that is eaten as a dip with Arab bread as part of a selection of meze, or hors d’oeuvres. 

14. Taratoor is mixed with ground  chickpeas  for  hummus bi tahini, another hors d’oeuvre dip.

15 .Tahini is also used as a sauce ingredient for fish and vegetable dishes.

16. Sesame seeds are rich in protein, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. 

17. Sesame seeds contain lignans and phytosterols, which are plant compounds that can help lower cholesterol in the body. Phytosterols are also believed to enhance immune response and decrease risk of certain cancers. 

18. Sesame seed also contain substances called sesamin and sesamolin. These two substances have antioxidant and antibacterial properties. Antioxidants are important to health because it protect the body against various diseases by slowing down damage to cells. 
The antibacterial activity of sesame seeds is proven to fight against staph infections and strep throat as well as common skin fungi, such as athlete’s foot.

19. Type 2 diabetes is a lifelong disease that does not allow the human body to produce insulin the way it should. This result in high blood sugar level called hyperglycemia. Research had shown that taking oil of sesame seeds with type 2 diabetes medications enhances the effectiveness of the treatment.. Eating healthy foods like sesame seeds can help people with type 2 diabetes reach their target blood sugar levels. Additionally, the antioxidants in sesame oil reduce the amount of sugar in the blood.

20. A lot of people believed to have poor oral hygiene Sesame seeds can also get rid of the bacteria that cause plaque on your teeth. An ancient practice called oil pulling is shown to improve your oral hygiene and health when practiced regularly and correctly. Sesame oil is one of the most common oils used in this practice, which involves swishing a tablespoon of oil around your mouth when you wake up in the morning.

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT
Sesame is a drought resistant plant that thrives in warm climate and it is primarily grown for its oily seeds. the oil is used in cooking, cosmetics etc.
It grows best in areas with mean annual rainfall of 300-600mm and temperature between 25-30°C. If the temperature is more than 40°C with hot wind, the oil content will reduce. If the temperature goes beyond 45°C or below 15°C, yield will decrease.
SOIL REQUIREMENT: Sesame plants can grow best in well-drained, fertile, medium-textured soils. They thrive in sandy loam soils. They are intolerant of acidic or saline soils and cannot tolerate wet conditions. They require soil with pH range of 5.5 to 8.0.
LAND PREPARATION: Sesame plants need a fine, firm, and smooth seedbed. To achieve this, clear the land of weeds, rocks and other debris. Plough the soil to break up clods. Harrow and create a fine seed beds. It is recommended to do land Preparation one month before planting or sowing.
SEEDS SELECTION: Select high quality seeds for planting. Choose seeds that are uniform in size, shape and free from pests and diseases and have a high yield germination rate.
SOWING: Sow seeds directly in the field preferably during the onset of monsoon. Seeds should be sown at the depth of 2-3cm between rows and 10cm between plants.
To facilitate seeding and achieve even distribution, the seeds can be mixed with dry sand or well sieves farm yard manure in the ratio 1: 20. Seed drill can be done to sow seeds into the soil. The depth of drills should not be deeper than 2.5cm. Placement method can then be used to sow the seed. Deep seeding can affect germination and plant stand.
SPACING: Spacing depends on sesame variety, plant type and season. Some varieties are planted 30cm ×15cm. Some 60cm×15cm, while some have spacing of 45cm ×15cm.
SEED TREATMENT: Sesame seeds should be treated before sowing to prevent seed borne diseases. They should be treated with fungicides or bactericides.
IRRIGATION: Sesame is a drought resistant plant and can tolerate low rainfall. however, regular irrigation is necessary during the early growth stage. Avoid waterlogging as it may cause root rot.
FERTILIZER APPLICATION: apply 20-25kgN, 40-50kgP per hectare of land during land Preparation. Apply 20-25kgN per hectare of land as a top dressing after 30 days of sowing.
WEEDING; this is critical in sesame farming as weeds compete with the crop for sunlight, nutrients and water. use pre-emergence herbicide and hand weeding to control weeds.

PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL

Sesame is susceptible to pest and diseases such as stem borers, aphids, whiteflies and fusarium wilt etc.

PESTS

1. LEAF ROLLER OR WEBBER AND CAPSULE BORER ( Antigastra catalaunalis): This pest is most prevalent during the capsule formation and early vegetative stages of the plant. They start attacking the plant at 2-3 weeks after germination when the leaves are still tender. The damage is easy to identify, as it’s often marked by small black balls of excrement. The caterpillars feed on the tender leaves. The larvae feed inside the plant, boring holes into the pods and destroying the seeds. 

CONTROL: Early sowing of seeds, intercropping, crop rotation, use of biological control by allowing birds to feed on the pests, spraying insecticides etc.

2. LEAF HOPPER ( Orosius albicinctus)
The nymph stage and adult stage sucks the sap of tender parts of the plants. This pest causes the leaves to curl at the edges, turn red or brown, dry up, and shed. 
CONTROL: Remove infested parts and destroy, seed treatment, intercropping and spray insecticides.

3. GALL FLY ( Asphondylia sesami).
The fly lay eggs that hatch to produce maggots.
The maggots of this pest cause buds to develop into galls that produce no fruits or seeds. 
CONTROL: Gall clipping, picking and burning the shed buds, plant resistant varieties and spray insecticides.
Other pests include:

4. TIL HAWK-MOTH ( Acherontia styx): This pest is made up of large caterpillars that feed on leaves and defoliate the plants. 

CONTROL: Deep ploughing, collect and destroy caterpillars and spray insecticides.

5. WHITEFLY: This pest sucks the cell-sap from the lower surface of leaves and also in the tender leaves. 

6. TIL LEAF AND POD CATERPILLAR : This pest feeds on leaves and bores into shoots, flowers, buds, and pods, damaging young plants. 

7. MIRID BUG: This pest sucks the cell-sap from tender leaves, flowers, and fruits. 

8. APHIDS: This pest causes stunted growth and may injure buds, preventing the development of seedpods. 

9. THRIPS: This pest causes stunted growth and may injure buds, preventing the development of seedpods. 

Some ways to manage these pests include:

1. Insecticidal soap spray: This can be used to manage aphids, leafhoppers, and thrips.

2. Neem oil: This can be used to smother pests.

3. Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis): This naturally occurring bacteria can be used to treat leafrollers, cutworms, and other caterpillars. 

4. Also, use pesticides and fungicides to control pests and diseases

DISEASES
Some common diseases of sesame include:

1. PHYLLODY: A phytoplasma disease transmitted by leafhoppers. It causes abundant abnormal branching of the shoot which causes the top of the shoot to bend. Also, infected plants do not bear capsules. But peradventure capsules are produced, the seeds will be of low quality.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Intercropping, delay in planting, spray insecticides to kill leaf hoppers, Rogueing, spray neem oil etc.

2. MACROPHOMINA ROOT AND STEM ROT: A destructive disease caused by the fungus Macrophomina phaseolina. The diseases appear on root and stem. The plant will show symptoms of wilting, at ground level, the stem becomes black in colour which extend upward rupturing the stem. If wilted plants are uprooted, black coloured roots will be observed showing signs of sclerotia of the fungi.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Crop rotation, deep ploughing, soil drenching, plant resistant varieties etc.

3. CERCOSPORA LEAF SPOT (CLS): A fungal disease caused by the fungus Cercospora sesami. The disease appear as small angular brown leaf spot of about 3mm in diameter with grey center and brown margine. Under severe condition, defoliation occurs. Lesion may also occur
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Early planting, intercropping, plant resistant varieties and spray chemicals.

4. POWDERY MILDEW: A fungal disease caused by the fungus Erysiphae cichoracearum . Small cottony spot appear on the affected leaves which spread to the laminar. Under severe condition, defoliation occurs.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Early planting, intercropping, plant resistant varieties, and spray chemicals on the leaves.

5. BACTERIAL LEAF SPOT AND BLIGHT: A bacterial disease caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. sesami. Plant shows symptoms of small angular,light brown to brown spot confines on veins with dark margins. When disease spread to veins and petioles, defoliation occurs.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Seed treatment with hot water and foliar spray with chemicals.

6. PHYTOPHTHORA BLIGHT: A fungal disease . It shows signs of initial water soaked spots on the leaves and stems. In the beginning, the spot turn brownish and later turn to black colour.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Deep ploughing, improve drainage system, crop rotation, plant diseased free seeds, seed treatment, spray chemicals.

HARVESTING: One of the signs for harvesting is the leaves turn yellowish and start to droop. sesame is ready for harvesting when the capsules turn brown and start to split open. Harvest by cutting the crop at the ground level and allow them to dry for few days. Thresh the dried plants by beating with stick or machine thresher and separate the seeds from the capsules.

STORAGE: Store sesame seeds in a cool dry place to prevent spoilage. use appropriate storage containers to prevent pest infestation.

In conclusion, sesame farming require proper planning, implementation and execution of the plan to earn a profitable income from its cultivation. Careful following of the above steps of its cultivation will bring about a bountiful harvest and increase farmers income.

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