Sesame (Sesamum indicum), is a plant in the family Pedaliacea and genus Sesamum. It is also called several names like simsim,  benne  or  gingelly. It is believed to have likely originated from Asia or East Africa. Today, sesame plant is found in most of the tropical, subtropical, and southern temperate areas of the world. Numerous wild relatives occur in Africa and a smaller number in India. It is widely naturalized in tropical regions around the world and is cultivated for its edible seeds, which grow in pods. The world largest producer of sesame include Sudan, Myanmar, and India. Sesame plant is an erect  annual  plant,  grown for its seeds, which are used as food and flavouring and from which a prized oil is extracted. The aroma and taste of sesame seed are mild and nutlike. The chief constituent of the seed is its fixed oil, which usually amounts to about 44 to 60 percent. Noted for its stability, the oil resists oxidative rancidity. The seeds are also high in protein and are rich in thiamin and vitamin B6.

DESCRIPTION OF SESAME PLANT

THE PLANT: Sesame plant (Sesamum indicum) is made up of different varieties which can grow from about 0.5 to 2.5 metres (2 to 9 feet) tall depending on environmental and climatic conditions. Some varieties have branches, others do not.

STEM: The stem is erect, green, and can be smooth, slightly hairy, or very hairy. It can be square in section with longitudinal furrows, or rectangular or flat.
LEAVES: The leaves can be 3–17.5 cm long and 1–7 cm wide. The lower leaves are broad and sometimes lobed, while the upper leaves are more narrow and lanceolate.
FLOWER: The flowers are tubular, bell-shaped, and can be light purple, rose, or white in colour. They grow in the leaf axils and bloom from late summer to early autumn. One to three flowers appear in the leaf axils when developing.

FRUIT: The fruit is a rectangular capsule that contains the seeds. The capsules are 2–3 cm long and 6–12 mm in diameter.

SEEDS: The hulled seeds are creamy or pearly white, black, yellow, or brown and about 3 mm (0.1 inch) long and have a flattened pear shape. They are rough with wings at either end. The seeds are produced in a capsule. The seed capsules open when dry, allowing the seed to scatter. Hand labour is employed in harvesting to prevent loss of the seeds. With the development of a nonscattering variety of the plant in the mid-20th century, mechanized harvesting of the crop was made possible.

ROOTS STEM : The sesame plant has a well-developed root system with profuse lateral branches. This makes the plant very tolerant of drought.

USES OF SESAME
Sesame seed is the main beneficial part of the plant. This gives reason why sesame is cultivated all over the world.

1. The ancient Egyptians are known to have used the ground seed as grain flour.

2. Chinese At about 5,000 years ago till date, extract oil from the seeds and burned the oil to make soot for the finest Chinese ink blocks.

3. In the past, the Romans ground sesame seeds with cumin to make a pasty spread for bread.

4. The sesame plant was once thought to have mystical powers, and sesame still retains a magical quality, as shown in the expression “open sesame,” from the Arabian Nights tale of “Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves.”

5. Sesame oil is used as a salad oil or cooking oil, in shortening and margarine,

6. The oil is used in the manufacture of soaps, pharmaceuticals, and lubricants.

7. Sesame oil is used as an ingredient in cosmetics.

8. The press cake remaining after the oil is expressed is highly nutritious.

9. The whole seed is used extensively in the cuisines of the Middle East and Asia.

10.  Halvah is a confection made of crushed and sweetened sesame seeds.

11. In Europe and North America the seeds are used to flavour and garnish various foods, particularly breads and other baked goods.

12. Tahini, paste of crushed sesame seeds is widely used in Middle East for cooking.

13. Tahini mixed with garlic, lemon juice, and salt and thinned with water constitutes taratoor, a sauce that is eaten as a dip with Arab bread as part of a selection of meze, or hors d’oeuvres. 

14. Taratoor is mixed with ground  chickpeas  for  hummus bi tahini, another hors d’oeuvre dip.

15 .Tahini is also used as a sauce ingredient for fish and vegetable dishes.

16. Sesame seeds are rich in protein, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. 

17. Sesame seeds contain lignans and phytosterols, which are plant compounds that can help lower cholesterol in the body. Phytosterols are also believed to enhance immune response and decrease risk of certain cancers. 

18. Sesame seed also contain substances called sesamin and sesamolin. These two substances have antioxidant and antibacterial properties. Antioxidants are important to health because it protect the body against various diseases by slowing down damage to cells. 
The antibacterial activity of sesame seeds is proven to fight against staph infections and strep throat as well as common skin fungi, such as athlete’s foot.

19. Type 2 diabetes is a lifelong disease that does not allow the human body to produce insulin the way it should. This result in high blood sugar level called hyperglycemia. Research had shown that taking oil of sesame seeds with type 2 diabetes medications enhances the effectiveness of the treatment.. Eating healthy foods like sesame seeds can help people with type 2 diabetes reach their target blood sugar levels. Additionally, the antioxidants in sesame oil reduce the amount of sugar in the blood.

20. A lot of people believed to have poor oral hygiene Sesame seeds can also get rid of the bacteria that cause plaque on your teeth. An ancient practice called oil pulling is shown to improve your oral hygiene and health when practiced regularly and correctly. Sesame oil is one of the most common oils used in this practice, which involves swishing a tablespoon of oil around your mouth when you wake up in the morning.

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT
Sesame is a drought resistant plant that thrives in warm climate and it is primarily grown for its oily seeds. the oil is used in cooking, cosmetics etc.
It grows best in areas with mean annual rainfall of 300-600mm and temperature between 25-30°C. If the temperature is more than 40°C with hot wind, the oil content will reduce. If the temperature goes beyond 45°C or below 15°C, yield will decrease.
SOIL REQUIREMENT: Sesame plants can grow best in well-drained, fertile, medium-textured soils. They thrive in sandy loam soils. They are intolerant of acidic or saline soils and cannot tolerate wet conditions. They require soil with pH range of 5.5 to 8.0.
LAND PREPARATION: Sesame plants need a fine, firm, and smooth seedbed. To achieve this, clear the land of weeds, rocks and other debris. Plough the soil to break up clods. Harrow and create a fine seed beds. It is recommended to do land Preparation one month before planting or sowing.
SEEDS SELECTION: Select high quality seeds for planting. Choose seeds that are uniform in size, shape and free from pests and diseases and have a high yield germination rate.
SOWING: Sow seeds directly in the field preferably during the onset of monsoon. Seeds should be sown at the depth of 2-3cm between rows and 10cm between plants.
To facilitate seeding and achieve even distribution, the seeds can be mixed with dry sand or well sieves farm yard manure in the ratio 1: 20. Seed drill can be done to sow seeds into the soil. The depth of drills should not be deeper than 2.5cm. Placement method can then be used to sow the seed. Deep seeding can affect germination and plant stand.
SPACING: Spacing depends on sesame variety, plant type and season. Some varieties are planted 30cm ×15cm. Some 60cm×15cm, while some have spacing of 45cm ×15cm.
SEED TREATMENT: Sesame seeds should be treated before sowing to prevent seed borne diseases. They should be treated with fungicides or bactericides.
IRRIGATION: Sesame is a drought resistant plant and can tolerate low rainfall. however, regular irrigation is necessary during the early growth stage. Avoid waterlogging as it may cause root rot.
FERTILIZER APPLICATION: apply 20-25kgN, 40-50kgP per hectare of land during land Preparation. Apply 20-25kgN per hectare of land as a top dressing after 30 days of sowing.
WEEDING; this is critical in sesame farming as weeds compete with the crop for sunlight, nutrients and water. use pre-emergence herbicide and hand weeding to control weeds.

PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL

Sesame is susceptible to pest and diseases such as stem borers, aphids, whiteflies and fusarium wilt etc.

PESTS

1. LEAF ROLLER OR WEBBER AND CAPSULE BORER ( Antigastra catalaunalis): This pest is most prevalent during the capsule formation and early vegetative stages of the plant. They start attacking the plant at 2-3 weeks after germination when the leaves are still tender. The damage is easy to identify, as it’s often marked by small black balls of excrement. The caterpillars feed on the tender leaves. The larvae feed inside the plant, boring holes into the pods and destroying the seeds. 

CONTROL: Early sowing of seeds, intercropping, crop rotation, use of biological control by allowing birds to feed on the pests, spraying insecticides etc.

2. LEAF HOPPER ( Orosius albicinctus)
The nymph stage and adult stage sucks the sap of tender parts of the plants. This pest causes the leaves to curl at the edges, turn red or brown, dry up, and shed. 
CONTROL: Remove infested parts and destroy, seed treatment, intercropping and spray insecticides.

3. GALL FLY ( Asphondylia sesami).
The fly lay eggs that hatch to produce maggots.
The maggots of this pest cause buds to develop into galls that produce no fruits or seeds. 
CONTROL: Gall clipping, picking and burning the shed buds, plant resistant varieties and spray insecticides.
Other pests include:

4. TIL HAWK-MOTH ( Acherontia styx): This pest is made up of large caterpillars that feed on leaves and defoliate the plants. 

CONTROL: Deep ploughing, collect and destroy caterpillars and spray insecticides.

5. WHITEFLY: This pest sucks the cell-sap from the lower surface of leaves and also in the tender leaves. 

6. TIL LEAF AND POD CATERPILLAR : This pest feeds on leaves and bores into shoots, flowers, buds, and pods, damaging young plants. 

7. MIRID BUG: This pest sucks the cell-sap from tender leaves, flowers, and fruits. 

8. APHIDS: This pest causes stunted growth and may injure buds, preventing the development of seedpods. 

9. THRIPS: This pest causes stunted growth and may injure buds, preventing the development of seedpods. 

Some ways to manage these pests include:

1. Insecticidal soap spray: This can be used to manage aphids, leafhoppers, and thrips.

2. Neem oil: This can be used to smother pests.

3. Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis): This naturally occurring bacteria can be used to treat leafrollers, cutworms, and other caterpillars. 

4. Also, use pesticides and fungicides to control pests and diseases

DISEASES
Some common diseases of sesame include:

1. PHYLLODY: A phytoplasma disease transmitted by leafhoppers. It causes abundant abnormal branching of the shoot which causes the top of the shoot to bend. Also, infected plants do not bear capsules. But peradventure capsules are produced, the seeds will be of low quality.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Intercropping, delay in planting, spray insecticides to kill leaf hoppers, Rogueing, spray neem oil etc.

2. MACROPHOMINA ROOT AND STEM ROT: A destructive disease caused by the fungus Macrophomina phaseolina. The diseases appear on root and stem. The plant will show symptoms of wilting, at ground level, the stem becomes black in colour which extend upward rupturing the stem. If wilted plants are uprooted, black coloured roots will be observed showing signs of sclerotia of the fungi.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Crop rotation, deep ploughing, soil drenching, plant resistant varieties etc.

3. CERCOSPORA LEAF SPOT (CLS): A fungal disease caused by the fungus Cercospora sesami. The disease appear as small angular brown leaf spot of about 3mm in diameter with grey center and brown margine. Under severe condition, defoliation occurs. Lesion may also occur
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Early planting, intercropping, plant resistant varieties and spray chemicals.

4. POWDERY MILDEW: A fungal disease caused by the fungus Erysiphae cichoracearum . Small cottony spot appear on the affected leaves which spread to the laminar. Under severe condition, defoliation occurs.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Early planting, intercropping, plant resistant varieties, and spray chemicals on the leaves.

5. BACTERIAL LEAF SPOT AND BLIGHT: A bacterial disease caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. sesami. Plant shows symptoms of small angular,light brown to brown spot confines on veins with dark margins. When disease spread to veins and petioles, defoliation occurs.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Seed treatment with hot water and foliar spray with chemicals.

6. PHYTOPHTHORA BLIGHT: A fungal disease . It shows signs of initial water soaked spots on the leaves and stems. In the beginning, the spot turn brownish and later turn to black colour.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Deep ploughing, improve drainage system, crop rotation, plant diseased free seeds, seed treatment, spray chemicals.

HARVESTING: One of the signs for harvesting is the leaves turn yellowish and start to droop. sesame is ready for harvesting when the capsules turn brown and start to split open. Harvest by cutting the crop at the ground level and allow them to dry for few days. Thresh the dried plants by beating with stick or machine thresher and separate the seeds from the capsules.

STORAGE: Store sesame seeds in a cool dry place to prevent spoilage. use appropriate storage containers to prevent pest infestation.

In conclusion, sesame farming require proper planning, implementation and execution of the plan to earn a profitable income from its cultivation. Careful following of the above steps of its cultivation will bring about a bountiful harvest and increase farmers income.

The post SESAME CULTIVATION appeared first on Supreme Light.

Shrimps farming is becoming popular and also increasing all over the world. The highest shrimps and prawn producer lies in the Asian continent where millions of shrimps or prawns are raised and exported to other continents.
Shrimps ( Penaeus spp) are invertebrates, Crustaceans with approximately 2,000 species belonging to the suborder Natantia, order Decapoda (which means “10-footed” because they have ten legs), and the class Crustacea. Close relatives include crabs, crayfish, prawns and lobsters.

Shrimp are characterized by a semitransparent body flattened from side to side and a flexible abdomen terminating in a fanlike tail. The appendages are modified for swimming, and the antennae are long and whiplike. Shrimp swim backward by rapidly flexing the abdomen and tail.
Shrimps are found in all oceans, in shallow and deep water and in freshwater lakes and streams. Many species are commercially important as food. They range in length from a few millimetres to more than 20 cm (about 8 inches); average size is about 4 to 8 cm (1.5 to 3 inches).
Most people refer to larger individual shrimps as prawns. But they differ from one another.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PRAWN AND SHRIMPS
The names “prawn” and “shrimp” are often used interchangeably in culinary terms due to their similarity in taste and appearance. But they differ from one another.
They belong to thesame subphylum of Crustacean, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, etc. They also belong to the order “Decapoda,” which means “10-footed” because they have ten legs. But they differ in the following ways:

1. They belong to different suborders. Prawn belongs to the suborder Dendrobranchiata, while shrimp are in the Pleocyemata suborder.

2. They also belong to other families, with prawns belonging to Penaeidae and shrimps belonging to Caridea.

3. Prawns are primarily found in freshwater habitats like rivers and lakes. Shrimps, on the other hand, live exclusively in saltwater habitats.

4. Prawns are usually larger than shrimps and have straighter body shapes; they can grow up to 6 inches and above.
In comparison, shrimp are smaller, with most species being between 1 and 3 inches long.

5. Prawns release their fertilized eggs into the water and leave them to grow and care for themselves.
On the other hand, shrimps carry their eggs on the underside of their bodies until they hatch etc.

BENEFITS OF SHRIMPS
Shrimps are not only beneficial in the business sector but are also beneficial in other ways. They are healthy food diets in human and Livestock feeds. It is rich in minerals and vitamins which can treat numerous diseases in the human body. They are also rich source of selenium that prevents the growth of cancer cells in human body. They are like fish that is rich source of Omega 3 fatty acids which is good for heart and help in reducing cholesterol level.

1. RELIEF OF MENSTRUAL PAINS: Shrimps contain Omega 3 fatty acids which help balance the negative effects of Omega 6 fatty acids and aid the alleviation of menstrual cramps for women. It also promote healthier blood flow to the reproductive organs.

2. STRENGTHEN THE BONES: Shrimps contain proteins and vitamins and nutrients such as calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium that help prevent bone degeneration. They also help slow the effects of ageing bones.

3. SOURCE OF MEAT: The main source of food in shrimps is the meaty abdomen after the exoskeleton is removed. The meat contains zero carbs, very low in calories and rich in protein.

4. The fat content in shrimps is low.

5. Shrimps are treasure trove of vitamins and minerals. They contain nutrients such as iron, calcium, sodium, phosphorus, zinc, magnesium and potassium. They are also rich in vitamins A, E,B6 and B12.

6. AIDS COGNITION: The high iron content in shrimps aid blood flow. It increases oxygen flow to the muscles and brain. This ensures strengthening and endurance and improves memory and concentration.

7. IODINE: Iodine helps the human body to produce thyroxine (thyroid hormone) needed for development of brain during infancy and pregnancy.

8. HELP LOSS WEIGHT: The protein and vitamin D with no carbohydrate help loss weight.

9. The astaxanthin is a powerful antioxidant found in shrimps that reduces the sign of aging in the skin of human.

10. They contain zinc that help increase leptin level in the body of human. Leptin is an integral part of the body that helps regulate fat storage, appetite and overall energy use.

11. DELAY AGEING: Shrimp meat contain heparin like compound, a substance that relates muscular degradation. It also help treat neovascular AMD.

12. The Asthaxanthin also help relief eye fatigue.

13. IMPROVE HEART HEALTH: Shrimp meat contains fibeinolytic enzyme used for thrombolytic treatment which help prevent dangerous blood clotting. The enzyme can help prevent dangers of cardiovascular diseases.

14. The Omega 3 fatty acid eliminate damages caused by cholesterol in the blood stream.

15. STRENGHTENS HAIR: Zinc deficiency can cause hair loss. zinc in the body maintains and create new cells including hair and skin cells.

16. ANTI-AGEING PROPERTIES: Sunlight is one of the causes of skin ageing. Taking a meal of shrimps in diet can help build new skin cells, creating a glowing skin and not worn out or wrinkled faces.

17. Apart from the vast amount of minerals and vitamins found in shrimp meat, they also contain iodine, thiamin, riboflavin and niacin.

18. ASTAXANTHIN: This is a compound found in shrimps. It improves memory performance, improves survival of the brain cells and reduce the risk of brain inflammation diseases.
SIDE EFFECTS OF SHRIMPS

1. MERCURY: Mercury is harmful to human health. Shrimps contains some amount of mercury which can cause mercury poisoning, vision issues and decrease fetal health.

2. FOOD ALLERGIES: People who do not consume sea foods can be allergic at their first consumption of shrimps.

3. PURINES: Purine break down into uric acids in human body when cells die. Therefore, consuming high amount of shrimps promote uric acid flow in the body.

SHRIMP FARMING
Shrimp farming also known as shrimp aquaculture, is a method of cultivating shrimp in a controlled environment for human consumption. The controlled environment may be ponds, tanks, or raceways using freshwater or marine waters for raising the aquatic organisms.

METHODS USED FOR SHRIMP FARMING

TRADITIONAL METHODS
In traditional shrimp farming, fry are collected from the wild or concentrated through tidal water pumped into ponds. This method can lead to low yields and inconsistent production because of the seasonal supply of fry, inefficient control of predators and competitors, full dependence on natural food and inadequate pond depth. But gradually, some improvements were being made over the traditional farming methods. Stocking density of shrimp ponds are increased through concentration of fry by pumping more tidal water into the ponds. Also, pond depth has now being increased to minimize fluctuations of environmental parameters. As a result, pond yield has correspondingly increased. However, expansion of the shrimp farming industry is still restricted due to the inconsistency in fry supply.
Today, mass production of hatchery-bred shrimp fry has being achieved especially in Asia. This hatchery has being accompanied with improved pond culture techniques, increasing yield from traditional shrimp ponds to about 500–800 kg/ha/year without supplementary feeding. But with supplementary feeds coupled with intensive pond management, pond yield can be further increased to 5–10 tons.

MODERN FARMING TECHNIQUES
The modern shrimp farming techniques also referred to as intensive method of shrimp culture operation is more sophisticated compared to the traditional methods. It requires very high financial and technical inputs with rearing facilities such as: earthen ponds or concrete tanks etc. This culture operation completely depend on hatchery-bred fry, high stocking density can be achieved, formulated feeds are used, application of aeration to increase dissolved oxygen level in pond water and intensive water management are utilized in this system.

Pond or tank sizes have increased from 500 m2 –5,000 m2 as found in Japan, Taiwan, Philippines and Thailand. The ponds now have dikes made of pure earthen material, earth coated with plastic sheets or concrete with separate inlet and outlet gates or small water inlets for flow-through purposes. Drain out system is in the form of a centrally located drain pipe, a drain gate (sluice or monk type) or a combination of both.

ADVANTAGES OF MODERN TECHNIQUES OVER TRADITIONAL SYSTEM

1. Modern techniques can increase shrimp yield.

2. Stocking density can be increased.

3.Regular pond size

4. Well aeration ponds

5. Use of high proteineous formulated feed etc.

SITES SELECTION FOR SHRIMP CULTURE

The selection of a suitable site always play a major role in shrimp farming. To determine a suitable site for shrimp farming, there is need to gather informations like: information on topography, ecosystem, meteorological and socioeconomic conditions in relation to farm design, species compatibility and economic viability. All of these must be analysed for proper profitable shrimp farming. All these will guide the farmer in making good judgment of the site. The site must have good water quality, availability of freshwater and assess to sea water, the land must be flat and adequate infrastructures must be in place.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS SUITABLE FOR SHRIMP FARMING
Shrimps are affected by warm climate. Tropical and subtropical climate are suitable when the culture period is too long. While warm temperate climate periods are appropriate when the culture period is short.
Shrimps can survive at a temperature of about 93°C. Above which their growth is impaired and they die. At 65°C, they will grow slaugishly.

WATER QUALITY AND WATER MANAGEMENT

Factors considered when choosing water quality for shrimps farming include: physico-chemical, water temperature, dissolved oxygen ,microbiological characteristics of water , salinity and water pH etc. The most important factor is the water pH. The prefered pH range of the water is from 7 to 8.5. Also, the level of oxygen saturation throughout the water column is of important because the shrimps need oxygen to breath and algae and planktons need it to grow. Fluctuations in dissolved oxygen level should be monitored as the prefered oxygen level should not be lower than 4 ppm. Below which the shrimps will die.

The water must not be too turbid. Water with very heavy silt load can cause siltation problems in the water supply system, eg., clogging of filter nets or net enclosures and increasing sedimentation at the pond bottom. The water is preferably to be rich in microorganisms.

Water salinity variation should also be monitored when producing shrimps. Optimal level varies from species to species. For instance, the tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) grows faster at 15–30 ppt. The white shrimp (P. indicus and P. merguiensis) tolerate higher salinity ranges (25–40 ppt). Ideally, salinity should remain uniform at normal weather and should not drop abruptly during rainy days. Therefore, the quantity and quality of the water are crucial for shrimps production. It is important for proper growth and survival of the shrimps and prawns.
Water management should therefore involve maintaining a correct pH, water temperature, dissolved oxygen level and salinity.

TIDAL FLUCTUATIONS : The tidal characteristics of the proposed site should be known. Knowledge of this parameter is of extreme importance in determining pond bottom elevation of dike, slope ratio and drainage system.

Areas best suited for shrimp farming should have moderate tidal fluctuations preferably 2–3 meters. In areas where the tidal range is greater than 4 meters, the site may prove uneconomical to develop or operate as large and high pond dikes will be required. In areas where tidal range is less than one meter, water management will be expensive as thus will require the use of pumps.

A salient point to consider in relation to tidal range is the knowledge of the occurence of highest high and lowest low water levels. This should be known so that the size and height of the perimeter dike can prevent flooding. In addition, direction and strength of water current should be known for provisions on dikes construction to reduce erosion.

Lastly, the proposed area must not be adversely affected by any industrial or agricultural pollution.

SOIL : The types and texture of the soil of the area should be analyzed before settling on a site for shrimp farming. Soil samples must be taken at random location, preferably up to a depth of 0.5 meter and subjected to physical and chemical tests to determine the acidity, amount of organic load, level of fertility and physical composition.

The soil at the proposed site should have enough clay contest. This is to ensure that the ponds constructed will hold water. Good quality dikes are usually built from sandy clay or sandy loam materials which harden and easily compacted. The dikes will not crack in dry weather. Clay-loam or silty-clay loam at pond bottom promotes growth of natural food organisms. Diking materials made of undecomposed plant matter and alluvial sediments should be avoided.

Most ponds developed along the coastal areas with dense mangrove vegetation often have acid-sulphate problem during the first few years of operation. This is due to the accumulation of pyrites (iron sulfide) in coastal soil. Breakdown of pyrites is minimal in submerged soil.
Alleviating acid sulphate conditions in ponds requires the use of lime and removal of acid by leaching and flushing.

TOPOGRAPHY : It is essential to have a detail topography of the selected site for pond design and farm layout. flat lands are suitable for pond construction. Coastal sites where the slopes run gently towards the sea are easier for pond development. Such areas require less financial inputs to excavate the land as the soil is soft and water is available to assess. Filling and draining of water is easily facilitated by gravity.

In areas where the above conditions are not available, mechanical pumps are employed ro pump water into the pond and to drain water likewise. One major constraint associated with this the topography of this area is the availability of sufficient quantity of soil for dike construction. Soils for dike construction are obtained from excavation of ponds or from above ground bunds. It is uneconomical if diking materials are transported from outside the site.

 VEGETATION: The type of vegetation in the area can be, to some extend, indicative of physical elevation and soil type. Dominance of the mangrove plants Avicennia spp. is an indication of good and productive soil. Outgrowths of Rhizophora spp. which are usually characterized by dense prop root systems usually signifies soil types that are coarse and acidic.
All vegetation at the site should be cleared first before any land development should take place. Clearing operation increase the cost of production.

 OTHER FACTORS: Other factors to consider include: source of fry to stock, assessibility to farm site, availability and quality of labor, peace and conflicted areas, nearness to market, storage and processing facilities, availability and source of electricity and water supply, marketing channels and facilities etc.

POND PREPARATION/ CONSTUCTION
To construct the pond, all weeds, debris or organic matter should be removed, the ground must be levelled, the perimeter wall and water inlet and outlet must be constructed. The size of the pond must be sufficient enough for the good growth and to obtain healthy and quality products from the farm so as to earn good return.
The pond should not/be more than 4 feet deep and should be well designed to have either a circular or square shape. The base of the pond must have a clean surface with the recommended pH range.
Suitable disease resistant chemical fertilizers should be applied to the side surface of the pond so as to keep away the selected fry from diseases in the pond. Also, organic manure like cured cow manure should be applied. This helps improve fertility and reproductive capacity in the pond. It also enhances the growth of plants and planktons which are food for the shrimps and prawns.
The pond should be filled with clean water, leave for about 7 to 10 days after filling and then stocked. This will ensure good growth in the pond.

SPECIES SELECTION
BREEDS OF SHRIMPS
There are various species of shrimps. They include:
prawn pistol shrimp, coral shrimp (Pandalus montagui), firefly shrimp etc. To select breeds of shrimps for farming, farmers should select breeds that are fast growing, high yielding, and should consider the climatic condition of their area or locality.

1. The common European shrimp, or sand shrimp,  (Crangon vulgaris ,Crago septemspinosus), occurs in coastal waters on both sides of the North Atlantic and grows to about 8 cm (3 inches); it is gray or dark brown with brown or reddish spots. The shrimp Peneus setiferus feeds on small plants and animals in coastal waters from North Carolina to Mexico; it attains lengths of 18 cm (7 inches). The young live in shallow bays and then move into deeper waters. Crangon vulgaris and Peneus setiferus are commercially important, as are the brown-grooved shrimp (P. aztecus) and the pink-grooved shrimp (P. duorarum).

2. The edible river shrimps of the genus  Macrobrachium  (Palaemon) are found in most tropical countries.

3. The pistol: shrimp, Alpheus, which grows to 3.5 cm (1.4 inches), stuns prey by snapping together the fingers of the large chelae, or pincers. In the Red Sea, species of Alpheus share their burrows with  goby  fishes. The fishes signal warnings of danger to the shrimp by body movements. The coral shrimp,  Stenopus hispidus, a tropical species that  attains  lengths of 3.5 cm (1.4 inches), cleans the scales of coral fish as the fish swims backward through the shrimp’s chelae.

4. Fairy shrimp, so called because of their delicate, graceful appearance, superficially resemble true shrimp but belong to a separate order, the Anostraca.

Shrimp species cultured in Asian countries belong to two genera (Penaeus and Metapenaeus). Among the dozen species cultured, Penaeus monodon, P. japonicus, P. merguiensis, P. indicus, P. orientalis and Metapenaeus ensis are the most important ones.

5. Penaeus japonicus and P. orientalis:
The spawners of Penaeus japonicus and P. orientalis are readily obtained in large numbers from the wild. The shrimp is hardy and can withstand handling. The survival rate of the adult shrimp of these species for long distance transportation is high. However, the species cannot tolerate low salinity and high temperature. P. japonicus prefers sandy bottom in grow-out ponds and grow fasts in high protein (about 60%) diet feed. The other temperate species, P. orientalis which is being cultured commercially in China and Korea, has a single pronounced spawning season in spring. Since both are temperate species, the period of hatchery operation is limited to the warmer seasons only.

6. Penaeus monodon:
Known as tiger or jumbo shrimp, is the most common species in Southeast Asian countries. It is one of the fastest growing species among the various shrimps that can be cultured. In pond conditions, shrimp fry of about 1 g in weight grow to a size of 75–100 g in five months at a stocking density of 5,000 per hectare. Some can grow up to 25 g in 16 weeks in tanks stocked at 15/m2 ; others can grow up to 42 g in 210 days in earthen pond and to 35 g in three months in tanks stocked at 15/m2 . The tiger shrimp is a euryhaline species and grows well in salinities ranging from 15 to 30 ppt. It is hardy and not readily stressed by handling. Presently, the major supply of its fry is still from the wild but the supply is sparse. Although several hatcheries have been established notably in the Philippines. Taiwan and Thailand, fry production is not consistent due to the full dependence on spawners caught from the wild. Until broodstock in captive condition can be made to mature and spawn, hatchery production of this species still has to depend on wild supply of spawners.

7. Penaeus indicus and P. merguiensis:
The biological characteristics of both species are generally the same. Many fish farmers are not able to distinguish the two species from each other. There are behavioral differences which help easy distinction. P. indicus prefers sandy bottom and is difficult to harvest by draining the pond while P. merguiensis is found most frequently in ponds with muddy bottoms moving out of the pond readily when water is drained. Gravid females of these species are easily obtained in large quantities from the wild. They can also mature in captivity. The larvae are more easily raised than those of P. monodon. However, the larvae are less hardy than other species, the juveniles and adults cannot withstand rough handling. Large quantities of fry can be obtained from natural spawning grounds. The growth rate in pond is relatively fast, reaching 12–15 g within the first three months of culture.

8. Metapenaeus ensis:
This species is very tolerant to low salinity (5–30 ppt) and high temperature (25–45°C). Fry are abundant in natural spawning ground and their survival rate in the ponds is usually high. This shrimp usually does not grow to a large size and has a low market price compared to other species. They are largely produced from trapping ponds or as secondary species of shrimp farms. The prawn or shrimps can be sold alive, fresh and frozen or processed depending on the market demand.

STOCKING THE POND
After the pond is constructed and ready, water management in place, the shrimp larvae are then introduced into the pond. The larvae should be purchased from hatcheries that specialize in shrimp and prawn breeding.

REPRODUCTION
The female shrimp may lay from 1,500 to 14,000 eggs, which are attached to the swimming legs. The swimming larvae pass through five developmental stages before becoming juveniles.

NURSERY PHASE
A nursery phase can reduce the risk of stocking post-larvae (PL) from hatcheries directly into grow-out ponds. In a nursery, PLs are stocked in small ponds or tanks for 30 days to enhance their immune systems. At 30 days, they are ready to be moved to the grow-out ponds. They are collected using a scope net or bag net. They undergo several growth stages including juvenile stage before becoming big enough to be called prawns. This takes more than 3 months.

FEEDING
Shrimp are omnivorous and will eat almost anything they find. Careful managed feeding regime is required. They feed once in a day. Shrimps do feed on high proteineous diets that include fish meal, soybean meal with other suppliments. The adult or matured shrimps should not be raised along side with the fry or juvenile as the smaller species become prey to the bigger species.
In traditional system, the food of shrimps mainly consist mostly of small plants and animals, although some shrimp feed on carrion. In intensive farming, shrimp are fed a mix of marine and terrestrial ingredients like fish meal and soybean meal.
Also, they feed on pelletized or commercial feeds. In an ecologically balanced ponds, they can feed on growing algae, larvae, and planktons. Natural foods are much prefered to supplementary feeds as this can increase cost of production.
Supplmentary feed is only required to increase growth and quality of production. The supplementary feed consist of agricultural and Livestock by- products, cheap feeds like broken rice, vegetables, tapioca roots, trash fish and Livestock feeds, all mixed in adequate proportion and produced in pellet form. The pellets must be produced in such a way that it sinks to the bottom of the pond quickly when fed to the shrimps and remain intact for atleast few hours till the shrimps completely feed on them.
The feeding schedule is usually adjusted based on the growth rate of the shrimps.

WATER QUALITY MONITORING
Regular water monitoring is essential to ensure that the pond environment is optimal for the shrimps growth. The parameters to monitor include temperature , dissolved oxygen, pH and salinity.
The water should also be checked for any toxicity, dissolved chemicals or substances or predators and pathogens on regular bases.
Water quality maximizes survival and growth rate of the shrimps. Paddledwheels and aspirations are usually used for aeration of the water. Aeration will generate a current that causes the sediments to accumulate at the center of the pond, thus, keeping clean feeding areas around the pond edges. As quality of shrimps increases, the level of aeration required also increases to keep the level of the dissolved oxygen in the water.
Water fountains can also be used for aeration. This will provide an aesthetic attraction and also aeration of the pond.
Also, it is important to note that shrimps do moult to increase in size because they are invertebrates. When they moult, the exoskeleton sinks to the bottom of the pond and may rot with feeds, this affecting the dissolved oxygen and creating poor water quality. Moulting can be recognized by the existence of exuviae in the pond. Therefore, to solve the problem of moult rottening, the soft exoskeleton must be less than 5% in the pond. This can be achieved by scheduled harvesting of the shrimps between two moultings.

DISEASES
Shrimps farming is susceptible to disease outbreaks. Therefore, proper disease management is crucial to maintain a healthy stock.
Shrimp farming can be affected by viral diseases like white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), yellow head disease virus (YHDV), and Taura syndrome.
CONTROL AND TREATMENT

1. Regular monitoring for signs of diseases should be carried out.

2. Appropriate treatments using antibiotics and prebiotic should be carried out to prevent and treat disease outbreak.

3. Maintaining water quality

HARVESTING
This is one of the final steps in shrimp farming. Shrimps reach table size in 3 months. Timing of the harvest is crucial to maximize yield and minimize lossess.
Harvesting involves draining of the pond or tank or raceways and the shrimps are captured. Some farmers uses cast nets to capture the shrimps. This is common in a water recirculatory system used in the farm.
The cast nets can be of different mesh sizes as farmer may only want bigger size shrimps living the smaller sized ones unharvested. The shrimps are then processed for sale.

SORTING: Shrimps, after harvesting are usually separated based on sizes, weights and softness. Based on sizes, there is the large sized, jumbo size and the soft shelled shrimps.

MARKETING: Farmers source for buyers and negotiate price with them based on the size of shrimps or prawn harvest.

In conclusion, shrimp farming is a complex process that involves careful management so as to achieve maximum profit.

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Cucumber (Cucumis sativus), is a creeping plant of the gourd family  (Cucurbitaceae), belong to the order Cucurbitales and containing 98 genera and about 975 species. It is widely cultivated for its edible fruit.
Members of the family may be either annual or perennial herbs and are native to temperate and tropical areas. Some of the plants under the gourd family include cucumbers, gourds, melons, squashes, and pumpkins.
The cucumber fruit has low nutritional value but its delicate flavour makes it popular for salads and relishes. Small fruits of cucumber are often pickled.
Cucumbers are often mistaken for vegetables. But they are fruits, specifically berries.
Some of the common names of cucumber from other countries include : kut-ahun (Bunan), tangkuikut-ahun (Bunan), 黄瓜 (Chinese, simplified), 青瓜 (Chinese, traditional), okurka setá (Czech), gurke (German), cetriolo (Italian), 오이 (Korean), eckadamin (Ojibwe), ogórek siewny (Polish), pepino (Portuguese), oгурец обыкновенный (Russian), පිපිඤ්ඤා (Sinhala), pepino cohombro (Spanish), gurka (Swedish), bi-toni-castilla (Zapoteco)etc. In Nigeria, Hausa tribe call it – Kokwamba Yoruba- Kukumba, and Igbo- Kukumba.
DESCRIPTION
PLANT :
Cucumber plants are tender annual or perennial  with a rough, succulent, trailing stems. They possess creeping vines that grow on trellises or other supports using spiraling tendrils. The plants have large leaves that form a canopy over the fruit.

THE LEAVES: The leaves are hairy and have three to five pointed lobes.
THE STEM: The stem bears branched tendrils by which the plant can be trained to supports.
THE FLOWER: The flower has five-yellow petals which  are unisexual and produce a type of berry known as a pepo after fertilization.

FRUITS: The cucumber fruit is a long, green, fleshy , berries fruit that is a member of the gourd family. They are made up of over 90% water, making them excellent for staying hydrated.
The fruits which are cylindrical with tapered ends, can be up to 24 inches long and 4 inches in diameter. They have a dark green outer skin and are pale green inside. They contain numerous numbers of seeds.
SEEDS
Cucumber seeds are whitish in colour, rich in oil and have a nutty flavor, but are difficult to use because they are small and covered in a fibrous coat.

VARIETIES
There are three main varieties of cucumber: slicing, pickling, and burpless. Under the varieties are different types.

They types include:
a. The most commonly available type of cucumber is the hothouse or English cucumber. It is large, with dark green skin, and few or no seeds.

b. Armenian, or snake cucumbers: These are long and twisted with thin, dark green skin and pale furrows. People often use them for pickling.

c. Japanese cucumbers: These are dark green and narrow. The skin is thin with small bumps on it. People can eat them whole.

d. Kirby cucumbers: People often use these for dill pickles. They are crispy, with thin skin and small seeds.

e. Lemon cucumber: These are around the size of a lemon, with pale skin. The taste is sweet and delicate.

f. Persian cucumbers: Shorter and fatter than the hothouse cucumber, these are crunchy to eat.
g. The wild cucumber vine (Echinocystis lobata) is a fast-growing plant that is native to North America. Gardeners consider it a weed. Its fruits are not edible.

BENEFITS OF CUCUMBER
1) Hydration: Cucumbers consist mostly of water, and they also contain important electrolytes. They can help prevent dehydration in hot weather or after a workout. Staying hydrated is essential for maintaining a healthy intestine, preventing  constipation, avoiding kidney stones, and etc.
For people who do not enjoy drinking water, adding cucumber and mint can make it more appealing.

2. Cucumbers are a nutritious food that contain many important vitamins and minerals. Cucumbers may also benefit skin health.

3. Cucumbers provide various nutrients but are low in calories, fat, cholesterol, and sodium.

4. Bone health:
Vitamin K helps with blood clotting, and it may support bone health. It helps improve calcium absorption. Together, these nutrients can contribute to good bone health.

5. Vitamin D is also important for bone health. Cucumber also contain vitamin D.

6. Cancer
As a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, cucumbers contain high levels of bitter-tasting nutrients known as cucurbitacin. Studies has proven that cucurbitacins may help prevent cancer by stopping cancer cells from reproducing.

7. Cucumber with its skin also provides around 1 g of fiber. Fiber may help protect against colorectal cancer.

8. Cardiovascular health:
Cucumber has high fiber content. The fiber can help manage cholesterol and prevent related cardiovascular problems.

9. Cucumber is also rich in potassium and magnesium. The Dietary Guidelines recommend that adults consume 4,700 mg of potassium each day and 310–410 mg of magnesium, depending on sex and age. By
reducing sodium intake and increasing potassium intake may help prevent high blood pressure.

10. The cucurbitacins in cucumber may also help prevent atherosclerosis.
11. Diabetes:
Cucumbers may play a role in controlling and preventing diabetes. It contains substances that may help lower blood sugar or stop blood glucose from rising too high.
The cucurbitacins in cucumber help regulate insulin release and the metabolism of hepatic glycogen, a key hormone in the processing of blood sugar.
Studies have also shown that cucumber peel can help manage the symptoms of diabetes in mice. This may be due to its antioxidant content.
Its Fiber too, may help prevent and manage type 2 diabetes, according to the AHA.

12. Cucumbers score low on the glycemic index (GI). This means they provide essential nutrients without adding carbohydrates that can increase blood glucose.

13. Inflammation:
Cucumbers may have anti-inflammatory benefits. Inflammation is a function of the immune system.
Experts believe inflammation may help trigger the development of various health conditions, such as:
cardiovascular disease
diabetes, autoimmune conditions, depression and
cancer

14. Skin care:
Some research has suggested that cucumber’s nutrients may provide benefits for skin health.
Applying sliced cucumber directly to the skin can help cool and soothe the skin and reduce swelling and irritation. It can alleviate sunburn. 16. Placed slice of cucumber on the eyes, they can help decrease morning puffiness.

15. Cucumber has some beauty tips which include:
It is used as toner: The juice of cucumber is used as a natural toner. Rub and leave the juice on the skin for 30 minutes, then rinse. Cucumber may have astringent properties, and it may help clear the pores.

16. Face pack: Mixture of equal amounts of cucumber juice and yogurt can help make face pack that helps reduce dry skin and blackheads.

17. Cucumber also contains a range of B vitamins, vitamin A, and antioxidants, including a type known as lignans. Studies have shown that the lignans in cucumber and other foods may help lower the risk of cardiovascular disease and several types of cancer

18. Cucumber contain Antioxidants which help remove substances from the body known as free radicals. Some free radicals come from natural bodily processes, and some come from outside pressures, such as pollution. If too many collect in the body, they can lead to cell damage and various types of disease.

SIDE EFFECTS OF CUCUMBER
Cucumber is safe to eat, but it also comes with some side effects.

1. Digestive problems:
Some people find some types of cucumber hard to digest when consumed.

2. Blood clotting:
Cucumber is relatively high in vitamin K. Eating too much cucumber could affect how a person’s blood clots.
This gives reason why people who use warfarin (Coumadin) or similar blood-thinning drugs not to increase their intake of cucumber or suddenly without consulting a doctor.

3. Allergy:
Some people are allergic to cucumber when consumed. Anyone with a known allergy should avoid all contact with cucumber.

4. Do not consume the fresh plant on which cucumbers grows, only consume cucumber fruits. The cucumber leaves and stem have high concentration of cucurbitacins than the cucumber fruits which can cause toxicity. Rather, the young leaves and stems of the cucumber plant can be cooked as a potherb
CULTIVATION OF CUCUMBER
The cucumber undergo six growing stages- germination, seedling, vegetative, floral, fruit formation, and harvest phases. Most varieties of cucumber can be harvested between 50-70 days . It can be grown in frames or on trellises in greenhouses in cool climates and is cultivated as a field crop and in home gardens in warmer areas.
PROPAGATION: Cucumber are propagated by seeds. High quality, disease resistant varieties seeds should be purchased and planted.
CLIMATE
Cucumbers prefer warm weather with stable climate conditions:

TEMPERATURE: Most species of the gourd family are extremely sensitive to temperatures near freezing, a factor that limits their geographic distribution and area of cultivation. The ideal temperature for growing cucumbers is around 20–25°C during the day and 15°C at night. High temperatures can make cucumbers bitter.

HUMIDITY: Humidity should be around 60–70% during the day and higher at night. High humidity in wet seasons can promote leaf diseases.
LAND PREPARATION
Cucumber plantation requires well prepared and weed free field. To bring soil to fine tilth, 3-4 ploughings must be done before planting. FYM such as cow dung should be mixed with soil to enrich the field. Then beds are prepared having width of 2.5m and at the distance of 60cm.
SOIL
Cucumbers grow best in well-drained, fertile, sandy loam to sandy clay loam soil with a pH of 5.5–6.8. Avoid infertile or poorly drained soils, and locations with very high rainfall.
PLANTING/ SPACING: Cucumber seedlings planted in nurseries can be transplanted to the field or left in the nursery to produce fruits. Spacing recommendations for cucumbers vary somewhat among states and growing regions. For example, in United States, a recommended planting spacing of 48 to 60 inch rows, with a plant-to-plant, in-row spacing of 6 to 12 inches is used.
In Nigeria, two seeds are sown per place of bed of 2.5m wide and spacing of 60cm between seeds. The seeds are sown at the depth of 2-3cm.

METHOD OF SOWING:
• Low tunnel technology: This technology is used in temperate regions to produce early yield of cucumber in early summer. It helps to protect the crop from cold season i.e. in the month of December and January. Beds of 2.5m width are sown in the month of December.
• Dibbling method
• Basing method
• Layout in ring method.

WATERING
Cucumbers grown in low humidity conditions need a lot of water. The plant has a higher demand for moisture during pollination and fruit development. A water shortage can cause misshapen fruits, abortion, or less vigor to sprout secondary shoots. The fruits can also become bitter if exposed to uneven watering conditions.

FERTILIZER
Cucumbers require moderately low amounts of nitrogen (N) and higher amounts of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). NPK fertilizer can increase fruit density, chlorophyll content, and shelf life. Typically, Split application are usually done. About half of the fertilizer is applied to the soil before planting or banded over the row at planting. The remaining amounts are put on as one or two early season sidedress applications, usually when plants begin to vine out

WEEDS CONTROL
Weed control are important management practices in cucumber farming. Cover crops and mulches, cultivation and hand weeding, and herbicides usage can be used to control weeds.

TRAINING AND PRUNING
Training and pruning of cucumber plants are important to promote proper growth, increase yield and improve fruit quality. Trellis or stake systems are best used for training cucumber.
In training cucumber, the trellis are used to hold the vines vertically. The trellis help save spaces, improve air circulation and make harvesting easy.

PRUNING: Cucumber plant should be pruned regularly so as to remove excess foliage, improve air circulation, and expose the plant to direct sunlight for fruit production. Lateral branches, sucker and damaged or diseased parts should be pruned.

GROWTH SEASON
The growth season for cucumbers is relatively short, lasting 55–60 days for field-grown varieties, and over 70 days for greenhouse varieties.

HARVESTING
Harvesting are done using the plants physiological factors such as colour, size, texture and sugar content.
Plants start yielding in about 45-50 days after sowing. Mainly 10-12 harvestings can be done. Harvesting is mainly done when the seed of cucumber are soft and the fruits are green and young. Harvesting is done with the help of sharp knife or any sharp object. The fruits must not be damaged during harvesting to give them a longer shelf life.

SEED PRODUCTION
Brown color fruits are best for seed production. For seed extraction, fruit pulp is taken out in fresh water for 1-2 days for the easy separation of seeds. The seeds are then rubbed with hands and as a result heavy seeds will settle down in water and then they are preserved for further use.

PEST AND DISEASES OF CUCUMBER
PESTS

SQUASH BEETLE:
The squash beetle (Epilachna borealis) is one of two species of Coccinellidae that eat plant material rather than other insects. The squash beetle feeds upon the leaves of cucurbits. The other species, the Mexican bean beetle (Epilachna varivestis), a close relative of the squash beetle, is a serious bean pest.

SPIDER MITES
Two-spotted spider mites (Tetranychus urticae) can be a serious problem on cucurbits, especially on watermelons and cantaloupes, during hot, dry weather. These tiny mites feed on the contents of individual cells of the leaves causing a pale yellow and reddish-brown spots ranging in size from small specks to large whitish, stippled areas on the upper sides of leaves. The mites can kill or seriously stunt the growth of plants. Because of their small size, spider mites are hard to detect until vines are damaged with hundreds of mites on each leaf.
CONTROL: Spray insecticides at planting or as a foliar spray. Insecticidal soaps also offer adequate control when applied before the numbers are too high. Do not spray plants in direct sun or if plants are drought-stressed.
Spider mites can also be controlled with neem oil extract.
Mites can be removed with a strong spray of water. Predatory mites and beneficial insects, such as lady beetles and minute pirate bugs, are important natural controls measure.

MELON APHIDS
Melon aphids (Aphis gossyppi) and several other aphid species attack cucurbits, particularly melons and cucumbers. Melon aphids vary in size and colour from light yellow to green to black. Some are winged, while others are wingless.
They are found chiefly on the underside of the leaves, where they suck the sap from the plants and cause a reduction in the quality and quantity of the fruit. Infested leaves curl downward and may turn brown and die. The melon aphid also is one of the chief vectors in transmitting  Cucumber mosaic virus. Usually, cucurbits are not attacked by aphids until the vines form runners.

CONTROL: natural controls using beneficial insects are extremely important in keeping aphid populations in check. In addition to natural enemies, Leaves can be sprayed with soapy water, then rinse with clear water. Spraying with insecticidal soap, planting in aluminum foil-covered beds, and filling yellow pans with water to trap the aphids are also effective control measures.

WHITEFLIES
Whiteflies are found in groups and at the underside of plant leaves.
Whiteflies are a common pest of cucurbit crops and may cause silverleaf disorder and vector (or spread) numerous harmful viruses. Whiteflies also weaken plants by feeding on their sap. They excreted Sticky honeydew as they feed. The excreted honeydew falls to lower parts of the plants and often develops and becomes covered with a dark-coloured sooty mold. This occurrence reduces the photosynthetic capability of the plant and can result in reduced yields.

CONTROL: Whiteflies can be managed culturally by providing proper nutrition and irrigation for plants. Also, reflective mulches can be used against whitefly feeding and disease transmission.
In addition, there are many beneficial insects that help manage whitefly populations, such as lacewings, bigeyed bugs, lady beetles, and minute pirate bugs. Many products effective against aphids are also effective in managing whiteflies.

MELONWORMS
The melonworm (Diaphania hyalinata) is a mid-summer to fall pest of summer and winter squash and cucumber in the United States. The pests migrate from tropical regions of Florida each year and usually arrive by late June or July to North Carolina. Higher population levels are usually observed in fall-planted cucurbits. After eggs are laid, the larvae (caterpillars) will undergo five instars before pupating. The later instars are pale to dark green with two horizontal cream-coloured stripes down the length of their back. The larvae feed on the leaf tissue, often leaving the veins intact, creating a skeletonized look. It is common to see leaves rolled or folded over to serve as a hiding spot as the melonworm pupates.

CONTROL: The melonworm usually completes its lifecycle within thirty days.
Spring planted cucurbits will escape most melonworm damage. In fall-planted gardens, careful scouting will help reduce infestations and damage. Many beneficial insects prey on or parasitize the melonworm, such as parasitic wasps, tachinid flies, ground beetles, and soldier beetles; therefore, farmers should avoid applying broad-spectrum chemicals, such as pyrethroids and neonicotinoids for melonworm management. Formulations of Bt and neem extracts can be used to manage melonworm and have less of an impact on beneficial insect populations.

DISEASES
The plants are susceptible to a number of bacterial and fungal diseases, including downy mildew,  anthracnose, and Fusarium wilt etc.

POWDERY MILDEW
It is a common fungal disease that appears as a white powder on the leaves, causing them to shrivel and stunting growth. Drought-stressed plants are more likely to get this disease.

DOWNY MILDEW
A fungal disease that causes yellowish spots on the upper surface of leaves, and a fuzzy, purplish-gray mold-looking growth on the undersides of leaves.

ANGULAR LEAF SPOT
It is a bacterial disease that causes small, water-soaked spots on the leaves that eventually become larger and angular in shape.

BACTERIAL WILT
A disease that primarily affects cucumbers and melons, but can also affect tomatoes, peppers, potatoes, eggplants, and corn. Cucumber beetles transmit the disease by creating wounds in the plant for the bacteria to enter.

CUCUMBER ANTHRACNOSE
Anthracnose is a fungal disease that not only affects cucumbers but also other cucurbits and beans (Phaseolus). They are caused by Colletotrichum fungi. The symptoms include small brown spots and marks on the foliage, which rapidly grow in size and develop a yellow edge, as well as pink mould developing on the stems and stalks. Anthracnose can be spread by contaminated seed and airborne spores and is encouraged by warm and moist conditions, such as when grown in glasshouses, but it can affect outdoor grown plants as well.

CUCUMBER SCLEROTINIA DISEASE
This disease is also known as white mold. It is caused by the fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. It is a fungal disease that can cause problems when growing cucumbers. It also affects both vegetable and ornamental plants. Sclerotinia fungi can unfortunately live for a long time in the soil. It primarily occurs as a stem blight or fruit rot.
The disease may cause cucumber plants to deteriorate rapidly. It also show symptoms of yellowish foliage, wilting, rotting stems and a white fluffy substance forming on the stems and fruit. PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: To prevent cucumber sclerotinia disease, grow cucumbers in new compost each year. Currently, there is no remedy and infected plants must be destroyed.

CUCUMBER MOSAIC VIRUS
Cucumber mosaic virus is a common viral disease that can affect not only cucumbers and cucurbits but also spinach (Spinacia oleracea), lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and some ornamental plants.
Symptoms include distorted and yellowing cucumber leaves with a mosaic pattern and reduced plant growth, resulting in reduced yields and misshaped fruits.

Mosaic virus is most often spread by insects, especially aphids. However, it can also be transmitted by infected garden tools and after handling other cucumber plants with the virus.

CUCUMBER ROT
Cucumber rot can affect different parts of the cucumber plant from the roots (root rot) to the stem (basal stem rot).

Root rot encompasses several fungal diseases that target the roots of cucumber plants with the worst being black root rot (Phomopsis sclerotioides). It often occurs later in the growing season, clear signs on inspection are rapid wilting as well as brown and black lesions on the roots.

CUCUMBER GREY MOULD
Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) is a common fungal disease that can affect numerous plants, including cucumbers. It normally affects already struggling plants or gets in through wounds, but the high humidity in a greenhouse or rainy season can increase its likelihood.

The main symptoms include grey-brown mould on the stems, stalks and fruit, which often occurs after pruning cucumbers and causes dieback above the infected area.
CONTROL: Remove and destroy affected plants.

The post CUCUMBER appeared first on Supreme Light.

Recycling of waste materials is now gaining a lot of ground globally. Lots of waste materials are now produced during human activities, animal wastes and crop residues which are recycled into new valuable materials. This valuable products are rich carbonaceous products that are utilized in agricultural production.
Carbonaceous materials are any organic material that contains a large amount of carbon content. Examples include coal, hydrocarbon petroleum products (e.g., crude oil, natural gas), carbonaceous gases, biochar and some metals such as carbon steel and carbon alloys.
Biochar is a term for carbonaceous materials which are sustainable fuels, soil remediation, and carbon sequestration. Today, biochar has gained the global attention as a soil amendment and provide other benefits especially in agricultural production. It is a stable solid, rich in carbon, that is made from organic waste material or biomass that is partially combusted in the presence of limited oxygen.
By defination, Biochar is refered to as charcoal and carbon-rich material produced by partial oxidation (pyrolysis at ≤700 °C in the absence or limited supply of oxygen) of carbonaceous organic sources such as wood and plants, excluding fossil fuel products ( petroleum). It is rich in recalcitrant carbon that can persist in soils for years or decades, and even millennia.
Biochar has the ability to turn useless wastes into valuable products. This process is called  valorization.
“Valorization ” means returning value to wasted materials. That value might be as an industrial additive, a new product, or even as a form of clean energy. The concept of valorization redefines the very idea of waste, applying instead a more dynamic understanding of how material changes over the course of its life cycle as a product.

WHAT IS BIOCHAR MADE UP FROM.
To have a better understanding of what biochar is and its properties, there is need to understand the following
1) What it was made from (i.e. the feedstock), and
2) The temperature at which it was made (i.e. 300-700°C).

COMMON FEEDSTOCKS
Biochar is a carbon-rich material that is made from biomass ( that is, materials derived from plants and animals called organic) through a thermochemical conversion process known as pyrolysis.
Thermochemical conversion can be applied to one or more kinds of waste, individually called “inputs” or “feedstocks.” Some common feedstocks include the following:

a. food waste
b. sewage sludge (also known as “bio-solids”)
c. agricultural by-products like crop straw and residues, animal manures, fruit pits, twigs, leaf litter, forestry wastes, and bagasse
d. cuttings and trimmings from parks and residences

These materials and methods used to produce biochar bring about the wide variety of chemical and physical properties possessed by biochar products.

Every thermochemical process results in a different final product (or “output”) when applied to a different feedstock. Three basic categories of outputs are derived from the thermochemical processes depending on the combination of feedstocks and methodologies used . Such outputs include: gas, liquid, and solid products. One methodology can lead to a combination of all three product types, depending on factors like temperature, air content, and pressure.

GAS PRODUCTS: Gas products are derived in a process called gasification. Gasification of waste biomass can result in industrially valuable gas products like light alkalines and olefins, typically derived from petroleum ( fossil fuel). These gases can be used directly for heat, power generation, electricity, transportation, as well as chemical and plastic production. It is also a potential source for pure hydrogen that can be used to generate green hydrogen energy.

LIQUID PRODUCTS: Liquid products can be made through thermochemical conversion in processes called Pyrolysis and catalytic upgrading. These two methods are used to convert waste biomass into bio-oil or bio-diesel. Pure hydrogen can also be produced in this way, which can be added to fossil fuels like gasoline or liquid natural gas to improve efficiency and lower overall GHG emissions. Other bio-fuels like mixed alcohols, ethanol, and methanol can also be made using this method.

SOLID PRODUCTS: When organic or inorganic waste are treated thermochemically, solid material or residue are usually left behind. The subjection of biomass to full pyrolysis result is biochar production..

TYPES OF THERMOCHEMICAL CONVERSION
As mentioned above, three main types of thermochemical conversion were mentioned.

1. pyrolysis
2. gasification
3. combustion

Each process requires different levels of oxygen to occur. PYROLYSIS : pyrolysis refers to the chemical decomposition of organic material when exposed to elevated temperatures in an atmosphere with restricted levels of oxygen. it occurs when there is none avialability of oxygen.
GASIFICATION: Occurs when there is a limited amount of oxygen, while
COMBUSTION : will only occur in the presence of oxygen.

IMPORTANCE OF BIOCHAR

1. It has been used by humans for over two thousand years as a soil enhancer or ammendments.

2. It helped to increase crop yields while sustaining essential soil biodiversity.

3. It improving soil health,

4. it is used to raise soil pH,

5. it is used to remediate polluted soils. 

6. It can be used on its own or mixed with other soil amendments. 

7. Carbon storage: Biochar is a very effective way to capture and store carbon in a solid state
8. Greenhouse gas emissions: Biochar can help lower greenhouse gas emissions by storing carbon. 

9. Water treatment: Biochar can be used for water treatment. 

10. Land reclamation: Biochar can be used for land reclamation in degraded soils.

11. It is used to increase soil aeration.

12. It is used to reduce nutrient leaching and reduce soil acidity.

13. It can be used for water retention in soil,

14. It is used as an additive for animal fodder.

15. It may be a means to mitigate climate change due to its potential of sequestering carbon with minimal effort. The process by which it is manufactured do sequester a billion tons of carbon annually and hold it in the soil for thousands of years, where it is most beneficial.

17. It refroms  irrigation  and  fertilizer requirements.

18. Fuel slurry: Biochar mixed with liquid media such as water or organic liquids (ethanol, etc) is an emerging fuel type known as biochar-based slurry. These slurries are fuels powering generators and providing electricity.

19. It enhances soil structure and aggregation

20. It reduces nitrous oxide emissions

21. It improves soil porosity

22. It improves soil electrical conductivity

23. It improves microbial properties

24. It is used for composting by promoting microbial activity, which accelerates the composting process. In addition, it also helps  reduce  the compost’s ammonia losses, bulk density and odour.

From all the bountiful benefits of biochar, it also comes with some negative effects such as over application harming soil biota, reducing available water content, altering soil pH, reduce pesticide efficacy and increasing salinity etc.

PRODUCTION OF BIOCHAR
Biochar, a charcoal-like substance made by burning organic material from agricultural and forestry wastes ( that is, biomass) in a controlled process called pyrolysis. During the process, contaminants are reduced and carbon is stored. Organic materials, such as wood chips, leaf litter or dead plants, are burned in a container with very little oxygen. As the materials burn, they release little or no contaminating fumes. The organic material is then converted into biochar, which is a stable form of carbon that cannot easily escape into the atmosphere. Energy or heat produced during the production process can be captured and used as a form of clean energy.
Clean feedstocks with 10 to 20 percent moisture and high lignin content are usually used such as those mentioned above, field residues and woody biomass. Contaminated feedstocks such as feedstocks from railway embankments or contaminated land, can introduce toxins into the soil, drastically increase soil pH and/or inhibit plants from absorbing minerals. The most common contaminants are heavy metals such as cadmium, copper, chromium, lead, zinc, mercury, nickel and arsenic and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons.

PROPERTIES OF BIOCHAR

1. Biochar is by far more efficient at converting carbon into a stable form
2.It is a clean source of energy than other forms of charcoal.
 3. biochar is black in colour just like charcoal.

4. It is highly porous.

5. It is light in weight.

6. It is fine-grained and has a large surface area.

7. Approximately 70% of its composition is carbon. The remaining 30% consists of nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen among other elements.

8. Its chemical composition varies depending on the feedstocks used to make it and methods used to heat it up.

HOW BIOCHAR SEQUESTER CARBON AND MITIGATE CLIMATE CHANGE

Feedstocks used in making biochar ,that is plant biomass are composed of carbon within their tissues. If these plant biomass are allowed to decompose naturally, the decomposition process would release higher amounts of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. But by heating the feedstocks and transforming their carbon content into a stable structure that does not react with oxygen during pyrolysis, biochar technology ultimately reduces carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, storing the carbon within the biochar product.

Biochar also mitigate climate change by enriching the soil, reducing the need for chemical fertilizers and improving soil health. It is environmentally friendly and also lowers greenhouse gas emissions. By enriching the soil and reducing heavy metal contamination, it stimulates the growth of plants, which consume carbon dioxide and produce safer food for consumption. The many benefits of biochar for both climate, the environment and agricultural systems make it a sustainable tool for regenerative agriculture.

The post BIOCHAR appeared first on Supreme Light.

Papayas a fruit crop originate from Central America where the indigenes ate papayas and used them for medicinal purposes. In the 1500s and 1600s, Spanish and Portuguese colonizers brought the seeds to other tropical areas of the globe, including the African countries, Philippines and India.
Papaya belongs to the family  Caricaceae, a small family of plants that comprise only six genera. The genus Carica L., intern comprises about 22 species that grow throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. They can be characterise as a poorly branched trees or shrubs as described for Carica papaya.
Papayas grow best where there is plentiful rainfall but little long-term flooding. Freezing temperatures may damage a papaya crop.
Today, Hawaii, the Philippines, India, Ceylon, Australia, and tropical regions in Africa are the top papaya-producing regions. Smaller papaya-farming operations still exist in Central and South America.
Papaya is called by many different names all over the globe. In Australia, it’s called a pawpaw. In southern Asia, it’s sometimes called a kepaya, lapaya, or tapaya. Its name in French is sometimes “figueir des iles,” or fig of the islands. Some Spanish names for papaya include “melon zapote,” “fruta bomba,” or “mamona.” In Nigeria, the Yoruba tribe calls it porpor.
But the major common name for papaya plant and fruits is ‘pawpaw’.

DESCRIPTION
The papaya plant is considered as an herbaceous  perennial tree.
Papaya has the potential to grow up to a height of between 2 to 10 m, and can reach maturity within a year. As it grows very fast, its economic life is also short and is around 3–4 years.
THE TREE: The papaya has an appearance of a tree but can also be refered to as a shrub. It has a cylindrical single stem which is hallow at the middle with spongy-fibrous tissues. The papaya tree hardly branch. Branching can only occurs when the main shoot is damaged/cut or the plant reaches to maturity, thereby new branches start appearing from the lower-end of the stem.
THE LEAVES: The leaves are large, lobed or palmated. The leaves appear in alternate fashion at the apical end of the shoot leaving the stem in the middle to lower region free from leaves with the leaves scares very conspicuous. 

THE FLOWERS: The papaya tree is polygamous in nature, a behaviour that is governed not only by genetics but also the environment such as temperature, draught or a variety of other climatic conditions.
Papaya tree can produce only a male (staminate), or only female (pistillate) or hermaphroditic (bisexual) flowers; or in the latter case even a tendency to either a female of male sex could manifests.

The Female and bisexual flowers are waxy, ivory white, and borne on short penducles in leaf axils, along the main stem. Flowers are solitary or small cymes of 3 individuals. Ovary position is superior. Prior to opening, bisexual flowers are tubular, while female flowers are pear shaped. Since, bisexual plants produce the most desirable fruit and are self–pollinating, they are preferred over female or male plants. A male papaya is distinguished by the smaller flowers borne on long stalks. They are unfruitful. Female flowers of papaya are pear shaped when unopened whereas, bisexual flowers are cylindrical”. Papaya start flowering between 5–8 months after planting. And these flowers develop to form the fruit.

THE FRUIT: The papaya fruit are produced from the fertilized ovule which yield in abundance based on the number of fertilized flowers.. The papaya fruit is composed of the skin, pulp and seeds which vary in composition depending on varieties or cultivars. The seeds could vary between 5% and 9%; skin 12–25% and pulp from 70% to 80%. The composition of the fruits could also vary depending on ripening state, with immature ones, for example, producing large amount of latex.

When the fruit ripens, the colour changes to light yellow and produce aroma. The pulp changes colour from white to orange or red. The skin becomes softer to be peeled.
PAPAYA FRUIT RIPENING
Fruit size of papaya do vary from less than 0.5 kg to 3kg. The fruit is mainly consumed fresh when ripened after harvest. Ripening is judged by the approximate percentage of yellowness on its skin, and more accurately by measuring its total soluble solids (TSS) contents with a refractometer. Firmness can also be used to judge ripening. This can be determined by touch or by a texture-measuring device. The firmness is related to the biochemical changes in three fractions of pectins in papayas, and is not a very accurate index of ripeness.

PAPAYA VARIETIES

There are many varieties of papaya in the market, they including:

Kapaho solo (also known as puna solo)

Waimanolo

Higgins

Wilder
Hortus gold

Honey gold

Bettina

Improved Peterson

Sunnybank

Guinea gold

Coorg honeydew

Washington

BENEFITS OF PAPAYA

1. Green papayas can be consumed when peeled or mixed in as a salad or in soups, which are quite popular in South-east Asia.

2. PROTECTION AGAINST HEART DISEASE: Papayas contain high levels of antioxidants such as vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin E. Diets high in antioxidants may reduce the risk of heart disease. The antioxidants prevent the oxidation of cholesterol. When cholesterol oxidizes, it may not create blockages that lead to heart disease.

3. Papaya is a delicious fruit. A good source of nutrients such as its high content of vitamins A, B, and C.

4. It contains proteolytic enzymes, such as papain and chymopapain and also have antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral properties.

5. Papayas have gained popularity as a natural home treatment, and for their use in skin and hair products.

6. WRINKLE REDUCTION:
Papaya is rich in antioxidants, such as lycopene, that may defend against the visible signs of aging caused by free radicals. The antioxidants can help fight free radical damage which may help make the skin remain smooth and youthful.

7. Papaya may also help improve the elasticity of the skin. This improvement in skin elasticity could minimize the appearance of wrinkles.

8. A  mixture of antioxidants including vitamin C and lycopene can help reduce the depth of facial wrinkles.

9. ACNE CONTROL:
The enzymes papain and chymopapain in papaya can decrease inflammation. The protein-dissolving papain can be found in many exfoliating products. These products help reduce acne by removing dead skin cells that can clog pores.

10. Papain can also remove damaged keratin that can build up on the skin and form small bumps. papain is also a treatment for scarring.

11. Retinol found in papaya is a topical form of vitamin A, can help treat and prevent inflammatory acne lesions.

12. MELASMA TREATMENT:
Papaya is a popular remedy for melasma. Studies have shown that the enzymes, beta-carotene, vitamins, and phytochemicals in papaya have skin lightening properties.

13. Daily application of cold-pressed papaya seed oil may help lighten dark spots.

14. HAIR CONDITIONING: the vitamin A in papaya can have positive effects on hair by helping the scalp produce sebum which nourishes, strengthens, and protects the hair.

15. HAIR GROWTH:
Studies have shown that compounds in papaya, including lycopene, are “a potent hair growth stimulating compound.”

16. DANDRUFF PREVENTION:
One of the main causes of dandruff is a yeast-like fungus known as malassezia. studies had shown that the antifungal properties of papaya seeds can assist in both controlling and preventing dandruff.

17. WEIGHT LOSS;
Eating papaya on an empty stomach can help with weight loss, improve heart health, enhance skin glow, ease constipation, and reduce cancer risks. However, cautions include avoiding excessive consumption of green papaya due to potential uterine contractions and monitoring for allergic condition.

18. LOW IN CALORIES :Papaya is a low-calorie fruit that is an excellent source of fiber, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and vitamins like A, C, E, and K. Those on a weight-loss regimen may find this fruit particularly beneficial due to its fiber content and low-calorie count.

19. REGULATION OF BLOOD SUGAR LEVEL
The nutrients in papaya can help normalize cholesterol levels and improve blood flow, reducing the risk of heart attacks and strokes. Papaya, with its low sugar content and high fiber, helps in regulating blood sugar levels. This is beneficial for diabetics and prevents hypertension by maintaining stable blood sugar levels. The papain enzyme in papaya acts as a natural pain reliever and helps control inflammation through cytokine production.

20. PREVENTS CANCER: Antioxidants in papaya, such as lycopene, inhibit cancer cell growth and reduce oxidative stress, lowering cancer risks. In addition, papaya is amazing for women’s health. Papaya’s carotene can stimulate the uterus and help regulate the menstrual cycle, reducing period cramps and promoting regularity.

SIDE EFFECTS OF EATING PAPAYA

1. There are certain side effects to consider when consuming papaya. One should be cautious when consuming green or semi-ripe papaya, as it contains high levels of latex. This concentrated form of latex may induce uterine contractions, which can lead to unplanned abortion, particularly in pregnant women.

2. Excessive consumption may damage the esophageal lining and cause allergic reactions due to its latex content.

3. People with low blood pressure and those prone to food allergies should be cautious.

4. Papaya seeds is known to reduce sperm count, therefore, should also be consumed with care.

PAPAYA FARMING
Papaya farming involves growing the tropical fruit in the right conditions of soil, climate, and water:

CLIMATE
Papaya grows best in warm to hot climates with temperatures between 20–35°C. It is sensitive to frost and strong winds.

SOIL
Papaya grows best in well-drained, light, sandy loam soil with a pH of 5.5–6.7 and lots of organic matter. The soil should not be sticky or calcareous.

RAINFALL
Papaya needs adequate irrigation to prevent drought and frost damage. It does best with an even distribution of annual rainfall of over 1000 mm.

PLANTING
Papaya is usually propagated by seed, and the seeds should be treated with a fungicide to control diseases.
It can also be propagated by tissue culture. The seed rate is 250-300 g./ha. The seedlings can be raised in nursery beds 3m. long, 1m. wide and 10 cm high as well as in pots or polythene bags. The seeds after being treated with fungicides are sown 1 cm. deep in rows 10 cm apart and covered with fine compost or leaf mould. Light irrigation is provided during the morning hours. The nursery beds are covered with polythene sheets or dry paddy straw to protect the seedlings. About 15-20 cm. ( about 45–60 days) tall seedlings are chosen for transplanting.

PLANTING SEASON:
Papaya is planted around February-March, June-July and between October-November .

SPACING:
A spacing of 1.8 x 1.8 m. is normally followed.  However higher density cultivation with spacing of 1.5 x 1.5 m./ha enhances the returns to the farmer and is recommended.

FERTILIZING
Papaya plant needs heavy doses of manures and fertilizers. Apart from the basal dose of manures ( at 10 kg./plant) applied in the pits,
the general recommendation is 200:200:400 gm/plant/year of NPK fertilizer is required. Chlorine-free fertilizers should be used because papaya is sensitive to chlorine. Also, micro-nutrients should be applied inform of ZnSO4 (0.5%) and H2 BO3 (0.1%). They are needed inorder to increase growth and yield characters.

THINNING:
In dioecious varieties, all male plants should be removed except for one for every 10–12 female plants. Male plants flower earlier and can be identified by their long flowering stalks.

WEEDING:
Weeding can be done by hoeing at the first year to check weed growth. This should be done on regular basis especially around the plants. Also, pre-emergence herbicide can be applied two months after transplanting for effective control of weeds for a period of four months. Earthing up should also be done before or after the onset of monsoon to avoid water-logging and also to help the plants to stand erect.

INTER-CROPPING:
Papaya can be intercropped with leguminous crops followed by non-leguminous crops. Also, shallow rooted crops can be intercropped, followed by deep rooted crops. No intercrops should be done after the onset of flowering stage.

PAPAYA PESTS AND DISEASES
INSECT PESTS

The insect pests mostly observed in papaya plantation are fruit flies (Bactrocera cucurbitae), grasshopper (Poekilocerus pictus), aphids (Aphis gossypii), red spider mite (Tetranychus cinnabarinus), stem borer (Dasyses rugosellus) and grey weevil (Myllocerus viridans). In all cases the infected parts need to be destroyed.

APHIDS:
DAMAGE SYMPTOMS: They suck sap from leaves and cause leaf curling and distortion. Also causes premature drop of fruits. And they are vector for papaya ringspot virus
CONTROL: Remove and destroy damaged parts of the plant
.Use  yellow sticky trap 
.Spray Neem extract 0.3% at 2.5 – 3 ml/lit water. Also Chemical control with insecticides can be done.

WHITEFLY :
DAMAGE SYMPTOMS: Yellowing, downward curling, and crinkling of leaves (vector for papaya leaf curl virus).
Causes shedding of leaves
Sooty mold development on leaf surface due to honeydew secretion
CONTROL: Removal of alternate hosts, maintain field sanitation, Use yellow sticky trap, Spray Neem oil at 1 – 2 ml/lit water and spray insecticides .

RED SPIDER MITE :
DAMAGE SYMPTOMS: The presence of white or yellowish speckles on the leaf,
Webbing of affected leaf surface and causes scaring on fruits.
CONTROL: Spray Bio-acaricide at 1 – 2 ml/liter water or insecticides.

ROOT-KNOT NEMATODE :
DAMAGE SYMPTOMS: Yellowing and shedding of leaves, premature drop of affected fruits, presence of galls on roots
CONTROL: Select seedlings without root galls for transplanting, crop rotation,
Mahua cakes can be applied to control nematodes.
Mix well-decomposed compost with 2 kg of Multiplex safe root and broadcast in the field. Also, insecticides can be sprayed.

FRUIT FLY :
DAMAGE SYMPTOMS: The larvae feed on the internal portion of semi-ripe fruits by puncturing, presence of decayed patches and oozing of fluids on affected fruits, infected fruits turn yellow and fall prematurely
CONTROL: Dispose off the dropped-infested fruits,
Summer plowing to destroy pupa, Use fruit fly trap . Also, insecticides can be sprayed.

MEALYBUG :
DAMAGE SYMPTOMS: Presence of white cottony masses on leaf, stem, branches, and fruits,
Infected portions become shiny and sticky due to honeydew secretion which causes sooty mold development.
CONTROL: Uproot the infested plants, keep the field weed-free
Spray solution of Sarvodaya soap to control mealy bugs and spray insecticides.

DISEASES

The main diseases reported are powdery mildew (Oidium caricae), anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides), damping off and stem rot.

DAMPING OFF
It is a fungal disease and mostly common in nursery beds, causing the death of seedlings. The stem may start to rot at the soil line. Infected seedlings may wilt.
TREATMENT: Treat 1 kg seeds with 10 gm of Pseudomonas fluorescens mixed in 10 ml of water.
Also, Spray Fungicide or Matco Fungicide.

POWDERY MILDEW : It is a fungal disease that results in symptoms such as
White or grayish powdery growth on the upper leaf surface, flower stalk, and fruits
Severely infected leaves turn yellow or brown, curl, dry up, droop, and fall off
TREATMENT: Spray Pseudomonas fluorescence at 2.5 ml/lit water.
Spray fermented buttermilk (1:3 ratio of buttermilk & water) twice or thrice with 10 days interval. Also, spray fungicides.

ANTHRACNOSE
Affects leaves, flowers, and fruits resulting in drop-off
Small, black, or brown circular spots appear on leaves.
Infected fruits may develop dark, sunken lesions later covered with pinkish, slimy spore mass.
Withering and defoliation of leaves may occur.
TREATMENT: Spray fungicide.Fungicide.

PAPAYA RINGSPOT VIRUS

Vector: Aphids 
Transmission: Sap, grafts 
Plants show symptoms of d
downward and inward curling of leaf margin, leaf distortion .Mosaic pattern of light and dark green areas on leaves. The presence of concentric circular rings on the fruit surface
TREATMENT AND CONTROL: Do not grow cucurbits around papaya field but plant sorghum or maize as a barrier crop. Also, agrochemicals like Geolife no virus, VC 100 etc can be sprayed on plants. Also, control vector aphids.

PAPAYA LEAF CURL

Vector: Whitefly 
Causes curling and crinkling of leaves. Downward and inward curling of leaf margin.
Affected leaves become brittle, leathery, and distorted
TEATMENT AND CONTROL: Do not grow tomato, or tobacco plants near the field
Also, Spray  agrochemicals like V-Bind Bio viricide , liquid Micronutrient which help to develop resistance to the disease. And control vector whitefly by spraying insecticides.

 ALTERNARIA LEAF SPOT:
Symptoms include: Small, circular, or irregular brown spots with concentric rings surrounded by a yellow halo on the affected leaves.
Defoliation of affected leaves
Circular to oval black lesions appear on the fruit surface
TREATMENT: Spray fungicides.

HARVESTING

The economic life span of papaya trees is 3-4 years. Harvesting of papaya too early or too late might increase the risk of postharvest physiological disorders. The papaya tree starts flowering and sets fruits in about 6 – 7 months. The fruits become ready for harvesting in 10 – 11 months from planting. Fruit ripening is indicated by the change in fruit colour from green to yellowish green. Also, when the latex ceases to be milky and become watery, the fruits are suitable for harvesting. Harvesting should be done by hand using sharp knives. 
The yield varies widely according to variety, soil, climate and management of the orchard. The yield of 75-100 tonnes /ha. is obtained in a season from a papaya orchard depending on spacing and cultural practices.

HARVESTING INDICES:  Fruit colour changes from dark green to light green with a slight tinge of yellow at the apical end

AVERAGE YIELD: Average yield per plant: 30 – 50 kg . Average yield per acre: 12 – 16 tons (1st year); 6 – 8 tons (2nd year) . Yield varies with cultivar.

POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT

 GRADING
Fruits are graded on the basis of their weight, size and colour.

STORAGE
Fruits are highly perishable in nature. They can be stored for a period of 1-3 weeks at a temperature of 10-130 C and 85-90% relative humidity.

  PACKING
Bamboo baskets with banana leaves as lining material are used for carrying the produce from farm to local market.

The post PAWPAW (Carica papaya) appeared first on Supreme Light.

When water comes down as precipitation, some of the water will seep down into the ground where it stay for some time until plants take it up. Som seeps down below ( infiltrates) to reach the underground water, some moves horizontally to reach nearby water while some makes its way back to the surface as surface water .
The process by which water from the ground’s surface enters the soil is called water infiltration.. It is a key part of the water cycle, and is commonly studied in hydrology and soil sciences.
The infiltration capacity is defined as the maximum rate of infiltration. It is most often measured in meters per day but can also be measured in other units of distance over time if necessary. The infiltration capacity decreases as the soil moisture content of soils surface layers increases. If the precipitation rate exceeds the infiltration rate, runoff will usually occur unless there is some physical barrier.

HOW INFILTRATION OCCUR
Water can get to the soil through various means. It can get to the soil through precipitation, irrigation water, rise of water table and also from surface water bodies. The water cycle is an important aspect of water that infiltrates into the soil.
The water cycle starts when water vapor condenses in the clouds and falls to Earth as rain, snow, sleet, or hail. This water can move in several different ways. It can be collected in one spot, runoff, infiltrate through the ground or be taken up by plants or animals. This water returns to vapor by evaporation or transpiration until it condenses again and starts the cycle over. This water from rain or irrigation or other sources enters the soil through porous areas, where the soil grains have enough space for water to pass between them. The water then percolates through the soil and rock until it reaches a saturated zone, where the water table is located. 

CAUSES OF INFILTRATION
Infiltration is caused by factors such as; gravity, capillary forces, adsorption, and osmosis. Many soil characteristics can also play a role in determining the rate at which infiltration occurs. Such soil characteristics include soil texture, soil porosity, compaction, bulk density, Precipitation, Soil moisture content; Organic materials in soils; Land cover; soil structure, vegetation types, and soil temperature. etc.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT INFILTRATION

1. PRECIPITATION:
Rainfall leads to faster infiltration rates than any other precipitation event, such as snow or sleet. At the beginning of a rainfall, infiltration rates are usually higher preceded by a dry period, and decrease as the rain continues.
When precipitation occurs, infiltration increases until the ground reaches saturation, at which point the infiltration capacity is reached. After which infiltration slows down.
This precipitation – infiltration relationships depend on factors such as the rainfall intensity ,amount, type, duration and the vegetation properties of the local area. For example, the duration of rainfall can impacts infiltration capacity when at the initially state of rainfall, infiltration will occur rapidly as the soil is unsaturated, but as the rain continues, the soil will reach a state of saturation at which infiltration rate slows down. If the rain continues, the soil continues to becomes more saturated, leading to runoff. Also, if rainfall occurs on wet soils, runoff will occur.

2 SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
a. SOIL POROSITY:
Soil porosity has a direct effect on infiltration. The higher the soil pore space, the higher the infiltration rate and vise versa. When soils have
higher porosity meaning more pore space then the rate of infiltration becomes higher. for example, coarse soils like sandy soils.
Also, Soils that have smaller pore sizes, such as clay, have lower infiltration capacity and slower infiltration rates than soils that have large pore sizes, such as sands. One exception to this rule is when the clay is present in dry conditions, in this case, the soil can develop large cracks which lead to higher infiltration capacity.
Soil porosity may be determined by Pore size distribution, soil texture and the subsoil horizons.
Dense subsoil horizons with low permeability can restrict rainwater infiltration. Deep tillage can improve subsoil permeability and allow more rainwater to infiltrate. 

b. SOIL COMPACTION: Soil compaction also impacts infiltration capacity. When soils are compacted due to for example heavy machine movement on soils, this results in decreased porosity within the soils, which decreases infiltration capacity.
It should be noted that large pores are more effective at moving water through the soil than smaller pores. When these pores are sealed up as a result of compaction, infiltration rates will be reduced. This can significantly lead to increased runoff and flooding and poor water quality.

c. HYDROPHOBIC SOILS: Hydrophobic soil is soil that repels water instead of absorbing it. It is caused by a waxy residue that coat the soil particles, making it difficult for water to penetrate.
Hydrophobic soil can be common in sandy soils, dried-out potting mixes, and soils with unrotted organic matter.
Hydrophobic soils can develop after wildfires have happened, which can greatly diminish or completely prevent infiltration from occurring. Such soils have a lower rate of water infiltration than non-hydrophobic soils. This is because water molecules are attracted to each other by cohensive force and have a weak ability to bond with the waxy soil particles. Therefore, droplets of water are formed with a high contact angle. This high surface tension of the water prevents the water droplets from spreading out over a large area.

d. SOIL MOISTURE CONTENT:
Saturated soils have no capacity to hold more water. This means that infiltration capacity has been reached and the rate of infiltration cannot increase beyond this point. This leads to much more surface runoff. When soil is partially saturated then infiltration can occur at a moderate rate and fully unsaturated soils have the highest infiltration capacity.

e. ORGANIC MATERIALS IN SOILS:
Organic materials like manure and plant residue which decompose to form organic matter and humus can improve soil infiltration by improving soil structure. Organic materials bind soil particles together into aggregates, which improves soil structure. When soil structure is improved, water flow downward through the soil easily and also improve the ability of the soil to absorb and hold water. This makes organic matter to improve infiltration rate.
Vegetation contains roots that extend into the soil which create cracks and fissures in the soil. This create rapid infiltration and increased infiltration capacity. Vegetation can also reduce the surface compaction of the soil which again allows for increased infiltration. When no vegetation is present, infiltration rates can be very low, which can lead to excessive runoff and increased erosion levels. Similarly to vegetation, animals that burrow in the soil also create cracks in the soil structure. Thus, increasing infiltration rate.
f. IMPERVIOUS SURFACES:
Some land areas are usually covered with impervious surface or impermeable surfaces especially during construction. Example is pavement, tired areas etc. infiltration cannot occur at such land areas because water cannot infiltrate through an impermeable surface. This can leads to increased runoff. Areas that are impermeable often have drainages that drain directly into water bodies, which means no infiltration occurs.
g. LAND COVER:
Vegetative cover over the land also have great impact on the infiltration capacity. Vegetative cover can lead to more interception of precipitation, which can decrease intensity of rain droplets leading to less runoff, more interception and increased infiltration rate. Increased abundance of vegetation also leads to higher levels of evapotranspiration which can decrease the amount of infiltration rate.  Debris from vegetation such as leaf cover can also increase the infiltration rate by protecting the soils from intense precipitation events. Trees have strong roots that can penetrate deep into the soil, which promotes infiltration.

In semi-arid savannas and grasslands, the infiltration rate of a particular soil depends on the percentage of the ground covered by litter, and the basal cover of perennial grass tufts. On sandy loam soils, the infiltration rate under a litter cover can be nine times higher than on bare surfaces. The low rate of infiltration in bare areas is due mostly to the presence of a soil crust or surface seal. Infiltration through the base of a tuft is rapid and the tufts funnel water toward their own roots.

h. SLOPE
Infiltration increases with increasing slope gradients and runoff decreases.
When the slope of the land is steeper, runoff occurs more readily which leads to lower infiltration rates. Gentle slopes on the other hand, lead to decreased runoff, which favours infiltration.

INFILTRATION RATE

The rate at which water enters the soil is called the infiltration rate, and is usually measured in inches per hour. Infiltration capacity is the maximum rate at which infiltration can occur. 

MEASURING INFILTRATION

Infiltration rates can be measured using devices like infiltrometers, rainfall simulators, and infiltration tests. 

RUNOFF

If the rate of precipitation is faster than the rate of infiltration, runoff will occur unless there is a physical barrier. Also, when water is supplied to the soil at a rate that exceed infiltration capacity (saturation), such water result in runoff especially on slopy areas or pond up on flat surfaces. When runoff occur on bare land or poorly vegetated soils, erosion will occur. The runoff will carry along with it nutrients, applied agrochemicals and soils to deposited them elsewhere. Thus decreasing soil health and productivity.
Ponded water on the soil surface means the soil is oversaturated and pore spaces are overfilled with water. Therefore, poor aeration of soil occurs which leads to anaerobic condition within that soil. This therefore leads to poor root function and plant growth, reduced nutrient availability, reduced cycling by soil microorganisms, and soil strength decreases. Also, soil structure is destroyed, high rate of soil particle detachment occurs, and the soil becomes more erodible.

The ponded water are also exposed to increased evaporation, hence reduced water availability to plants.

HOW TO IMPROVE SOIL INFILTRATION.
Several conservation practices result to reduced infiltration. By proper consideration and application of these practices, infiltration will be improved. Some of the conservation practices that reduce infiltration include: burning, harvesting of crop residues, tillage methods and soil disturbance activities, prevention of soil organic matter decomposition and accumulation, equipment and Livestock trafficking, and reduced soil porosity.
To maintain and improve soil infiltration, conservation measures should be properly applied. such measures include: Proper managing of crop residues, increasing vegetative covers, increasing soil organic matter, practicing zero tillage or non disturbance of soil, protect soil from erosion, encourage development of good soil structures, and breaking of compacted areas in soil etc.

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Soils vary in many different ways.  They differ in texture, consistency, colour, infiltration rates, tilth, permeability, depth, organic matter content, and water holding capacity – to name a few. Soil moisture which is an important component of the soil is required by plant to survive while growing on the soil. This soil moisture are found within the micropores in the soil.
Not all soil moisture in a soil is available to plant. Some are lost through evaporation and transpiration, runoff, as well as drainage and infiltration .
Available water is retained in the soil after the excess has drained (field capacity to wilting point). This water is the most important for crop or forage production. Plants can use approximately 50 percent of it without exhibiting stress, but if less than 50 percent is available, drought stress can result. Unavailable water is soil moisture that is held so tightly by the soil that it cannot be extracted by the plant. Water remains in the soil even below plants’ wilting point .
Soil moisture is essential in making management decisions such as; types of crops to plant, plant populations, irrigation scheduling, and the amount of fertilizer to apply. All these depend on the amount of moisture that is available to the crop throughout the growing season.
Soils have ability to hold water in a process called soil water holding capacity.
Water Holding Capacity is the amount of water that a medium can hold. This is affected by the media composition, texture, plant roots, any rocks or similar and, in the case of pots, slabs or bags, the size and shape of the container.
Soil water holding capacity is used to optimize crop production and It is defined as the amount of water that a given soil can hold for crop use. 
Field capacity is the point where the soil water holding capacity has reached its maximum for the entire field.

The goal of soil water holding capacity for agricultural producers is to maintain the field moisture at or near capacity.

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL WATER HOLDING CAPACITY

1. Soil moisture holding capacity is important because it helps plants grow.

2. It reduces the risk of flooding and erosion, and makes soil more resilient to extreme weather.

3. Soil that can hold more water can compensate for dry years when there isn’t enough precipitation. 

4. Adequate soil moisture helps plants transpire efficiently, which cools the plant and transports nutrients. 

5. Soils with a higher water holding capacity can store more water during wet periods, which reduces the risk of flooding and erosion. 

6. Soils with a higher water holding capacity can resist extreme weather events like long, wet winters and hot, dry summers. 

7. Soils with a higher water holding capacity need less water from rainfall or irrigation, which reduces the cost of irrigation. 

8. It is used to determine how much water storage capacity the field has,

9. It is used to determine how much supplemental irrigation should be applied. 

10. The WHC also determines how much irrigation water can be applied at one time to match the infiltration rate and avoid applying more water .

11. Maintaining soil water holding capacity can mean increased profits to farms.

12. It gives useful information about crop selection.

13. It gives information about ground water contamination consideration
14. It is used to estimate run off

Before further discussion about water holding capacity of soils, certain concept of capillarity needs to be understood.

1. CAPILLARITY: Water molecules behave in two ways:
a. COHESION FORCE: cohesion forces makes water molecules attracted to one another. Cohesion causes water molecules to stick to one another and form water droplets. While
b. ADHESION FORCE: Adhension force is responsible for the attraction between water and solid surfaces. For example, a drop of water can stick to a glass surface as the result of adhesion. It is adhension force that cling water to soil particles.

2. SURFACE TENSION: Water also exhibits a property of surface tension. Water surfaces behave in an unusual way because of cohesion. Since water molecules are more attracted to other water molecules as opposed to air particles, water surfaces behave like expandable films. This phenomenon is what makes it possible for certain insects to walk along water surfaces.

3. CAPILLARY ACTION: Capillary action, also referred to as capillary motion or capillarity, is a combination of cohesion/adhesion and surface tension forces. Capillary action is usually demonstrated in the laboratory using measuring cylinders or tubes of different width/sizes placed in a water bath to test the upward movement of water through the cylinders or tubes  against the force of gravity. (Note that capillary action occurs when the adhesive intermolecular forces between a liquid, such as water, and the solid surface of the cylinder or tube are stronger than the cohesive intermolecular forces between water molecules.)
From the result of capillarity, a concave meniscus (or curved, U-shaped surface) forms where the liquid is in contact with a vertical surface of the cylinder or tube.

Capillary rise is the height to which the water rises within the cylinder or tube, and decreases as the width of the cylinder or tube increases. Thus, the narrower the tube, the greater the rise of water to a higher height. Meaning that the liquid rises to the greatest height in the narrowest tube whereas capillary rise is lowest in the widest tube. Also, this demonstration can also be related to what happens in the soil. Capillary action also occurs in soils. Smaller pores that exist in finely-textured soils have a greater capacity to hold and retain water than coarser soils. Water moves upwards through soil pores, or the spaces between soil particles.
The height to which the water rises is dependent upon pore size. As a result, the smaller the soil pores, the higher the capillary rise. Finely-textured soils typically have smaller pores than coarsely-textured soils. Therefore, finely-textured soils have a greater ability to hold and retain water in the soil in the inter-particle spaces which are called micropores. This exist in clayey or silty soils. In contrast, the larger pore spacing between larger particles, such as sand, are called macropores.

In addition to water retention, capillarity in soil also enables the upward and horizontal movement of water within the soil profile, as opposed to downward movement caused by gravity. This upward and horizontal movement occurs when lower soil layers have more moisture than the upper soil layers and is important because it may be absorbed by roots. As a result, finer-textured soils have greater water holding capacity than coarse textures soil
Therefore, it can be stated that capillarity is the primary force that enables the soil to retain water, as well as to regulate its movement.

FACTORS INFLUENCEING SOIL WATER-HOLDING CAPACITY

Water-holding capacity is controlled primarily by soil texture and organic matter. Soils with smaller particles (silt and clay) have a larger surface area than those with larger sand particles, and a large surface area allows a soil to hold more water. In other words, a soil with a high percentage of silt and clay particles, which describes fine soil, has a higher water-holding capacity.
SOIL TEXTURE: Soils are made up of three main components: sand, silt and clay.  The proportion of each component determines the soil texture.  Each soil texture has its own Water Holding Capacity (WHC). Water Holding Capacity in relation to soil texture is the ability of a certain soil texture to physically hold water against the force of gravity.  It does this by soil particles holding water molecules by the force of cohesion.  As an example, a sandier soil has much less water holding capacity than a silt loam soil.  Due to the size of the soil particles, the cohesive properties are much different between a sand particle and a clay or silt particle.

Clay particles have the ability to physically and chemically “hold” water molecules to the particle more tightly than sands or silts.  Sands “give up” the water between the pores much easier than silts or clays. 

SOIL ORGANIC MATTER
Soil organic matter (SOM) is another factor that can help increase water holding capacity. Soil organic matter has a natural magnetism to water that is, organic matter has affinity for water. If the farmer increases the percentage of soil organic matter on his farm, the soil water holding capacity will increase. SOM is decayed material that originated from a living organism. SOM can be increased by adding plant or animal material.

HOW TO INCREASE THE SOIL WATER HOLDING CAPACITY ON FARMS
Changing the soil texture of the field is not a viable opinion to emback upon by farmers. Soil texture can be changed naturally by erosion, but that usually changes soil texture in a negative way. The best option for a farmer is to increase the soil organic matter of the soil.
Some basic ways to increase SOM include:

1. Use cover crops
2. Change to conservation tillage practices, for example no-till or minimal tillage
3. Add manure
4. Add compost
5. Living crop residues on the farm after harvest

.WATER HOLDING CAPACITY OF VARIOUS SOIL TEXTURES
Sand                         = 0.8”/ft
Loamy Sand             = 1.2”/ft
Clay                          = 1.35”/ft
Silty Clay                  = 1.6”/ft
Fine Sandy Loam     = 1.9”/ft
Silt Loam                  = 2.4”/ft

In conclusion, the Maximum Water Holding Capacity, also known as the Field or Pot Capacity, is the maximum amount of water that specific pot/bag/slab/similar can hold without it draining out

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Pumpkin may also be referred to as squash or marrow and is believed to have originated in Mexico and South America. They are in the gourd family, which means they have a hard skin, or shell, and grow on vines.
Pumpkin belongs to gourd family called cucurbitaceae. This squash exist in varieties like ; Cucurbita pepo, C. moschata, C. mixta and C. maxima.
Some people believe that they are vegetable crop but pumpkins are a fruit because they develop from a flower and hold the seeds of the plant. They are grown during the rainy season or summer.
In hindu, it is known as “HalwaKaddu” or “Kaddu. It is also Commonly called ; Budho (Luo), Malenge (Kiwahili), Lisiebebe (Luhya), Marenge (Kikuyu), Risoa (Kisii), Ulenge (Kamba). India is the second largest producer of pumpkin. It is used for cooking purpose, the seeds can be eaten raw or mixed with other prepared food and is used to make sweets. It is good source of Vitamin A and potassium. Pumpkin helps to boost eye vision, lowers blood pressure and has antioxidant properties. Its leaves, young stems, fruit juice and flowers contain medicinal properties.

DESCRIPTION OF PUMPKIN VARIETIES
THE VINES: Pumpkin plants are short-lived annual or perennial vines with branching tendrils and broad lobed leaves. The vines are capable of reaching 15 m (50 ft) in length if vines are allowed to root.
THE LEAVES: Pumpkins leaves are carried at the internodes along the long-running, bristled stems. The leaves are large, deeply-lobed and often containing white blotches, and yellow or orange flowers separated into male and female types on the same plant
THE FRUIT;
Pumpkin fruits are a type of berry known as a pepo. They are generally large, 4–8 kg (9–18 pounds) or more, though some varieties are very small. The largest pumpkins are varieties of C. maxima and may weigh 34 kg (75 pounds) or more. The most massive pumpkins ever grown have exceeded 907 kg (2,000 pounds). The pepo are often yellowish to orange in colour. They can also be red, blue, gray, white, and green in colour. They vary from oblate to globular to oblong. Some possess feature of white rind. The rind is smooth and usually lightly furrowed or ribbed. The fruit stem is hard and woody, ridged, and angled.

THE SEEDS: The seeds of all pumpkin species are edible and are commonly roasted. In the United States they are known as pepitas. They appear in green and white coats.

VARIETIES
Hybrid varieties:
Punjab Samrat (Released in 2008): They have medium long vines, angular stem and dark green colour leaves. It contains small fruits which are round in shape. The fruit is mottled green in colour when immature and at maturity stage it becomes pale brown in colour. Fruit contains golden yellow color flesh.

PAU Magaz Kaddoo-1: Released in 2018. The variety is also used for making Magaz and snacks. It has hull-less seeds, dwarf vines and dark green colour leaves. It has medium sized fruits which is round and turns golden yellow at maturity. The seed contains 32% omega-6, 3% protein and 27% oil content.

PPH-1: Released in 2016. Extra early maturing variety. They have dwarf vines, short internodal length and dark green colour leaves. It contains small fruits which are round in shape. The fruit is mottled green in colour when immature and at maturity stage it becomes mottled brown in colour. Fruit contains golden yellow colour flesh.

PPH-2: Released in 2016. Extra early maturing variety. They have dwarf vines, short internodal length and green colour leaves. It contains small fruits which are round in shape. The fruit is light green in colour when immature and at maturity stage it becomes smooth brown in colour. Fruit contains golden yellow color flesh.

Other varieties include:

CO 2: Released in 1974. The average weight of each fruit is 1.5-2kg. The fruit contains orange colour flesh. The variety gets mature in 135 days.

CO1, ArkaSuryamukhi, PusaViswesh, TCR 011, Ambilli and ArkaChandan are the important varieties of Pumpkin.
RESISTANT VARIETIES
Butternut 401: It has resistance to powdery mildew

Bugle: It has resistance to powdery mildew.

Early Butternut F1: It has resistance to powdery mildew.

Ultra F1: It has resistance to Fusarium wilt and powdery mildew.

Waltham: It has resistance to powdery mildew.

BENEFITS OF PUMPKIN

1. Pumpkins are commonly grown for human consumption, for decoration, and also for livestock feed.

2. In Europe and South America, pumpkin is mainly served as a vegetable and used interchangeably with other winter squashes.

3. In the United States and Canada, pumpkin pie is a traditional Thanksgiving and Christmas dessert.

4. Pumpkins are popular autumn decorations, especially C. pepo, the common field pumpkin. In some places, pumpkins are used as Halloween decorations known as jack-o’-lanterns, in which the interior of the pumpkin is cleaned out and a light is inserted to shine through a face carved in the wall of the fruit after the seeds and stringy goo have been taken out.

5. The inside flesh of some pumpkins is used to make pumpkin pie

6. The seeds can be roasted and eaten as a healthy snack.

7. Pumpkin flesh, leaves, and flowers can be cooked and eaten in a variety of dishes

8. Canned pumpkin is commonly made from C. moschata and may be mixed with other squashes, such as butternut squash (also C. moschata).

BENEFITS OF PUMPKIN SEEDS

1. It is full of valuable nutrients

2. High in antioxidants

3. high in magnesium

4. It is linked to a reduction in the risk of certain cancer

5. It improves prostrate and bladder health

6. it improves heart health

7. it can lower blood sugar

8. help improve sleep

9. It can increase sperm quality

10. high in fiber

11. easy to add to diet

12. The pumpkin has been used as a medicine in Central and North America. The seeds are widely used as an anthelmintic. The complete seed, together with the husk, is used to remove tapeworms.

13. The fruit and seed decoctions have been reported to be used as diuretics and to reduce fevers, and are used for curing indigestion.

14. The pulp is applied to burns and scalds, inflammation, abscesses, and boils.

15. It is also used in the treatment of migraine and neuralgia.

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT:

TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENT: Pumpkins and squarsh (various Cucurbita spp.) are grown in the temperate and tropical regions. In the tropics, pumpkins are grown from the lowlands up to 2500 m altitude. They are warm-season crops adapted to monthly mean temperatures of 18-27°C. C. maxima is the most tolerant of low temperatures, C. moschata and C. argyrosperma the least, with C. pepo intermediate. C. maxima and C. pepo have long been cultivated in temperate regions. Butternut appreciates part shade in very hot conditions, such as can be obtained when intercropped with other crops or grown under fruit trees.
HUMIDITY: Excessive humidity is harmful because of the development of leaf diseases, so none of the species do well in the humid tropics.
SOIL REQUIREMENT: It requires loamy soil having good drainage system and is rich in organic matter. Soil pH of 5.5-7 (soil with a neutral or slight acid reaction ) is optimum for pumpkin cultivation. It respond very well to medium to heavy applications of compost or well-decomposed manure. They can be cultivated on almost any fertile, well-drained soils.
WATER REQUIREMENT: They are drought-tolerant crop. They require relatively little water, and are sensitive to waterlogging.

PROPAGATION

Pumpkins and other squashes are grown from seed. Seeds may be grown in greenhouse or sown in containers and transplanted to the field when they are 10 cm high. Direct seeding of 2 to 3 seeds per mound is commonly practiced. Seeds from plants where edible pumpkins and ornamental gourds are grown close together should not be used because the fruits from the offspring produced will be bitter or even inedible.

LAND PREPARATION

Well prepared land is required for pumpkin farming. To bring the soil to fine tilth, ploughings with tractor is required.

SOWING

a. Time of sowing:
February-March and June-July is an optimum time for seed sowing.

SPACING:
Sow two seeds per mound and use spacing of 60cm. For hybrid varieties, sow seeds on both side of bed and use spacing of 45cm. Trailing types are planted at distances of 2-3 m either way; the seed requirement is 2 to 3 kg/ha. The bushy types (mainly C. pepo) are planted closer, for example, plants spaced 60 to 120 cm in rows 1 to 1.5 m apart; the seed requirement is 3 kg/ha for pumpkin and 7 kg/ha for summer squash (C. pepo).

SOWING DEPTH:
Seeds are sown 1 inch deep in the soil.

SEED TREATMENT:
Treatment with Benlate or Bavistin @2.5 gm/kg of seed is used to cure from soil borne diseases.

INTERCROPPING: Sole cropping is sometimes used for commercial production. Pumpkins and squashes are also planted in home gardens or mixed with field crops such as maize.
DECAPITATION: shoot tip removal is done to improve growth and development. It involves the removal of growing tips (in trailing varieties) to check growth.
FRUIT BAGGING AND PROTECTION: the bagging of fruits in paper to protect against fruit flies and other pests are done to improve growth and development. . Fruit sets may be stimulated by manual pollination. The fruit may rot when in contact with moist soil, so often cut grass or leaves are placed beneath the fruit.
FERTILIZER REQUIRMENT (kg/acre):
Pumpkins require nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers N:P:K 40:20: 20. In an acre of land, urea: SSP: MOP ,90:125: 35 is also required. Also, well rotten FYM at 8-10tonnes/acre should be applied before preparation of beds and fertilizer dose of Nitrogen at 40kg/acre in the form of urea at 90kg/acre, Phosphorus at 20kg/acre in the form of SSP at 125kg/acre and Potassium at 20kg/acre in the form of MOP at 35kg/acre should be applied. Nitrogen dose is applied in 2 equal splits. First half dose is applied before sowing and then remaining dose of nitrogen is applied as top dressing within one month.

WEED CONTROL
Frequent weeding or earthing up operation should be done. Weeding can be done with the help of hoe or by hands. First weeding is done after 2-3 weeks of seed sowing. In total, 3-4 weedings are required to make the field weed free.

IRRIGATION
Pumpkin requires regular supply of water, not waterlogging the soil. Immediate irrigation is required after seed sowing. Depending upon the season, subsequent irrigations at the interval of 6-7 days is required.

HARVESTING
Squashes and pumpkins are picked when mature in a once-over harvest or in several rounds, about 90 to 120 days after planting depending on the variety.
Harvesting is mainly done when skin of the fruits turns pale brown in colour and the inner flesh becomes golden yellow in colour. Mature fruits having good storage capacity therefore can be used for long distance transportation.

SEED PRODUCTION
In seed production, isolation between fields of different Cucurbita species is recommended, not only for the reason of purity but also for obtaining maximum yields (pollen of other species may cause reduced fruit set). All diseased plants should be removed from field. When fruits are mature i.e. they changes their colour into dull. Then they are crushed with hands in fresh water and then separate seeds from pulp. Seeds which are settled at the bottom are collected for seed purpose.

PEST AND DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL:

APHIDS AND THRIPS: Aphis gossypii and Myzus persica are the most common. Aphids are small, soft-bodied insects that can grow in large populations quickly. They can usually be found on the underside of the leaves and can cause direct and indirect damage to the plants infested.  They suck the sap from the leaves resulting in drooping of leaves as a result of chlorosis, decreased fruit quality and plant development, and in severe infestations, wilt. The honeydew released by the insect can cover the plant canopy and favor secondary fungal infections, reducing fruit yield and quality even more. Thrips results in curling of leaves, leaves become cup shaped or curved upward.
If infestation is observed in field, to control spray the crop with insecticides (mercaptothion, mevinphos, fenthion, dimethoate or Thiamethoxam@5gm/15Ltr of water).

CUCUMBER BEETLE

There are 2 types of cucumber beetles that affect pumpkin plants.

a. The striped cucumber beetle, Acalymma vittata (is yellow and has 3 black strips on its back), and 
b. The spotted cucumber beetle Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi (is yellow with 12 black spots on its back).
The adult beetles chew and feed on the foliage, flowers, vines, and fruit of pumpkins, causing severe damage. The larvae also feed on the stems and roots, leading to plant defoliation, wilt, and death. Striped cucumber beetles can also feed on flowers and pollen, reducing yields. Apart from these, they also cause damages by transmitting a dangerous pathogenic bacterium called Erwinia tracheiphila that can cause Bacterial wilt disease in pumpkins and other Cucurbita species. Furthermore, the beetles are vectors and can transmit the squash mosaic virus.
CONTROL: Some pumpkin farmers use yellow sticky cup traps, spray with kaolin clay or combine these methods with the technique of “trap crops” like dark green zucchini or blue hubbard squash (they are more attractive to the insect than pumpkins).

PUMPKIN FLIES: They cause sunken brown colour spots on fruits and white maggot gets develop on the fruit.
Foliar application of Neem oil at 3.0% is given to cure the crop from fruit fly pest.

DISEASE AND THEIR CONTROL:

POWDERY MILDEW (Podosphaera xanthii or Sphaerotheca fuliginea): Powdery mildew is generally a more common disease than Downy mildew and is caused by many different species of fungi, with the Erysiphe cichoracacearum and Podosphaera xanthii (or Sphaerotheca fuliginea) being the most dominant. The plant shows Patchy, white powdery growth appears on upper surface of leaves also on main stem of infected plant. It parasitizes the plant using it as a food source. In severe infestation it causes defoliation and premature fruit ripening.
If infestation is observed spray preventive fungicide combined with the cultivation of tolerant pumpkin varieties are the most effective protection and control measures for powdery mildew.

DOWNY MILDEW: Caused by Pseudopernospora cubensis. Symptoms are mottling and purplish colour spots are seen on lower surface of the leaves.
If infestation is observed, 400gm Dithane M-45 or Dithane Z-78 is used to get rid of this disease.

ANTHRACNOSE: Anthracnose affected foliage appears scorched. 
As a preventive measure, treat seed with Carbendazim@2gm/kg of seed. If infestation is observed in field, take spray of Mancozeb@2gm or Carbendazim@3gm/liter of water.

WILT: Root rotting is a result of wilt disease. 

If infestation is observed then drenching with M-45@400gm mixed 100ltr of water is done.

LEAF BLIGHT : Alternaria leaf blight is a fungal disease caused by Alternaria spp (species) such as Alternaria cucumerina. The infection is favored by warm, wet weather with high humidity levels for an extended period. At first, the farmer may observe the characteristic small, brown spots on the oldest leaves. These spots will become necrotic lesions on leaves as the disease progresses. During the last stages, the entire leaf will eventually die. The disease can lead to severe problems in a pumpkin field if uncontrolled. Since no resistant pumpkin cultivars are available, most farmers invest in preventing measures (e.g., increasing aeration within the crop, drip irrigation, etc.), or in the case the local authorities recommend (or symptoms are observed) they can spray with suitable fungicides (chlorothalonil is the most effective substance).

MOSAIC VIRUSES – Curcubita viruses
There are 4 important mosaic viruses that can cause problems in pumpkin crops: papaya ringspot virus or watermelon mosaic virus, watermelon mosaic virus 2, cucumber mosaic virus, and zucchini yellow mosaic virus. Most of these viruses are usually transmitted by aphids. Symptoms include curling of the foliage and the formation of a characteristic yellow mosaic on the leaves. We may also observe underdeveloped leaves and green and distorted petals. If the infection happens in early developmental stages, these plants may produce low or no fruit yield. In later stages, symptoms may also appear on the fruits (smaller fruits with spots, discoloration, or a mosaic pattern.
Management includes the control of the aphids population on the field and hygiene measures such as tools disinfection, removal of infected plants from the field, and using healthy propagation material. Like for other crop diseases and pests, it is essential to avoid planting Cucurbita species consecutively in the same field. There are only a few tolerant pumpkin varieties to specific of these viruses.

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Soil is the home for many organisms, place where different activities necessary for life of organisms occur. Plants grow on soil; microorganisms live in soils; water is found in and flow on soil; animals spend their life and move on soil; food for human and animals are grown on and in soil; nutrients required by plants and nutrient cycles are mined and take place in soils respectively. Also, humans establish and build their residence and building structures necessary for their livelihood on soils. Therefore, soils play major roles in the survival of all organisms on earth.
With all these beneficial importance of soil, soil can also be abused especially through human activities. For example, soil had been seen as a medium for disposal of hazardous wastes which may have a latter effect on human health and other organisms. Some other human activities like deforestation had lead to desertification, erosion, runoff, flooding, deficit or even loss of biodiversity, alteration of the soil matrix, deficiency of organic matter and nutrients losses through leaching etc. All of these have consequences on soil health and productivity, and balance in soil life.
For a soil to be considered healthy, productive and functional, the soil biological, biochemical, physical and chemical properties, all must correlated to give a balanced environment which will be able to sustain all activities occurring in it. One way this can be achieved is through the role of soil enzymes in the soil.
Soil enzymes are biocatalyst mostly proteinaceous in nature. They are also refered to as nature catalyst. They speed up the biochemical reactions and support the very existence of life on earth.
Soil enzymes play a fundamental role within the soil. It plays a key role in the energy transfer through decomposition of soil organic matter and nutrient cycling and hence play an important role in agriculture. They mediate numerous chemical reactions involved in soil nutrient cycling; transformation of plant and microbes’ debris; mineralisation and transformation of organic matter within the carbon cycle; transformation and degradation of potentially hazardous pollutants; thus contributing to the restoration and remediation of polluted soils. Also, soil enzymes are the important moderator and catalysts which play significant roles in soil. Soil enzymes such as invertase, urease, phosphatase, arylsulfatase, and hydrolase play an essential role in nutrient cycling. They catalyse the cycling of nutrients such as carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphate (P), and sulphur (S) also organic matter (OM) decomposition in soils .
Soil enzymes are a group of enzymes whose usual inhabitants are the soil and are continously playing an important role in maintaining soil ecology , physical and chemical properties, fertility and soil health.
All these makes soil enzymes an important factor involved in all activities fundamental to agricultural production and also used as useful indicators of microbial nutrient demand and soil health and quality.
IMPORTANCE OF SOIL ENZYMES
Enzymes trigger trillions of catalyst reactions in the soil. They are important for the following:

1. They release nutrients in soil by means of organic matter degradation

2. They are used for identification of soil

3. They are used for identification of microbial activities.

4. Enzymes enhance plant growth

5. They improve nutrient uptake

6. They strengthen plant defense mechanisms.

7. They can be applied as seed treatments, foliage sprays, or soil ammendments to provide healthier and more productive crops.

8. They play major role in impacting soil health, plant quality and agricultural productivity.

9. Some enzymes only facilitate the breakdown of organic matter (e.g. hydrolase, glucosidase), while others are involved in nutrient mineralisation (e.g. amidase, urease, phosphatase, sulphates). 

10. Enzymes respond to soil management changes long before other soil quality indicator changes are detectable. 

11. The activity of enzymes can be used to discover the level of pollution in soil (such as heavy metals, SO4),

12. Enzymes activities can be used to assess the successional stages, and degrade pesticides in the soil environment

13. Soil enzyme activity can be used as an essential soil-quality indicator. 

MECHANISMS OF ENZYMES

FUNCTIONS OF SOIL ENZYMES

1. They increase the reaction rate at which plant residues decompose and release plant available nutrients.

2. Enzymes are specific to a substrate and have active sites that bind to a substrate to form a temporarily complex . The substance acted upon by a soil enzyme is called the substrate. For example, glucosidase (soil enzyme) cleaves glucose from glucoside (substrate), a compound common in plants.

3. Enzymatic reactions usually release a product which are nutrients contained in the substrate.

4. They mobilize soil nutrients. For example, improves availability of plant nutrients from fertilizers to plants and soil microbs

5. They help break down crop residues which result to more carbon in the soil and increase microbial activities in the soil.

6. Enzymes improves plant defence mechanisms:

7. In agriculture, enzymes are organic fertilizers

8. They act as natural herbicides, pesticides and fertilizers that help the plant or crop to reach its best possible growth and yield

9. Enzymes are usually added to fodder of livestock, to help the animals with their proper digestive functions and aids.

10. Enzymes are specific to a substrate and have active sites that bind with the substrate to form a temporary complex. The enzymatic reaction releases a product, which can be a nutrient contained in the substrate.
ORIGIN OF SOIL ENZYMES
Enzymes are specialized proteins produced by the following organisms:

1. Microorganisms either living or dead
2. Plant roots and plant residues
3. Soil animals.
   They are biological catalyst that accelerate chemical reactions without them being consumed in the process.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL ENZYMES
There are about 5000 known enzymes in the world.

1. Based on their action, there are six main classes of soil enzymes. They include:
a. OXYDOREDUCTASE: Oxidation reduction reaction. It involve the transfer of electrons (hydride ions or hydrogen atoms). For example, dehydrogenase, catalase, Peroxidase.
b. TRANSFERASES: Transfer of groups of atoms from donor to an acceptor molecules. for example, Aminotransferases, Rhodonese.
c. HYDROLASES: It involve hyrolysis reaction ( that is, transfer of functional groups of water ). Hydrologic cleavage of bonds. for example phosphates, cellulose and Urease.
d. LYASES: Cleavage of C-C, C-O, C-N bonds other than hydrolysis or oxidation. It eliminate groups leaving double bonds or addition of grous to the double bonds. for example, Aldolase.
e. ISOMERASES; Isomerization reaction. It involves the transfer of groups within molecules to yield isometric forms.
f. LIGASES: Formation of bonds by the cleavage of ATP. for example Acetyl-CoA carboxylases. The bonds are formed by condensation reaction coupled to cleavage to the ATP or similar cofactor.

2. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON WHEN THE ENZYMES ARE PRODUCED IN A BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM
a. CONSTITUTIVE ENZYMES: These are enzymes present in nearly constant amount in a cell ( these are not affected by additon of any particular substrate and the genes encoding then are always expressed. for example, Pyrophosphatase.
b. INDUCIBLE ENZYME: These enzymes are present only in trace amount or not at all. But they quickly increase their concentration when the substrates are present. For example, Amidase.
Both constitutive and inducible enzymes are present in the soil

3. ENZYMES CAN ALSO BE CLASSIFIED BASED ON THEIR pH OPTIMA AND VARIATION WITH SOIL pH

GroupA: Acidic consistent among soils
ENZYMES: cellobiohydrolase SOIL pH: 4.0-4.5
ENZYMES: β-xylanase SOIL pH:4.5-5.5
ENZYMES: arylsulphatase SOIL pH:3.0
GROUPB; Acidic – sub-acidic, variable with soil pH
ENZYMES: α-glucosidase. SOIL pH:3.0-7.0
ENZYMES: β -glucosidase. SOIL pH:3.0-4.75
ENZYMES: β- N-acetylglucosaminidase SOIL pH:3.0-5.0
GROUPC; Acidic or alkaline, depending on soil pH
ENZYMES: acid phosphomonoesterase SOIL pH:3.0-5.0
ENZYMES: alkaline phosphomonoesterase
SOIL pH:9.5-11.5
ENZYMES: phosphodiesterase SOIL pH:3.0-5.5

STATES OF ENZYMES IN SOILS
Enzymes stabilised in the soil matrix accumulate or form complexes with organic matter (humus), clay, and humus-clay complexes

1. Role of clays. 2. Role of organic matter. 3. Role of clay-organic matter complex. 1.ROLE OF CLAY:
a. Enzymes are involved in most activities associated with clay.
b. They increase resistance to proteolysis and microbial attack
c. They also increases the temperature of inactivation

2. ROLE OF ORGANIC MATTER
a. Humus materials provides stability to soil Nitrogen compounds
b. enzymes attached to insoluble organic matrices exhibit plant and temperature changes

3. ROLE OF ORGANIC MATTER-CLAY COMPLEX
a. lignin + bentonite ( clay) protect enzymes against proteiolitic attack but not bentonite alone.
b. Enzymes are bound ro organic matter which is then bound to clay
CRUCIAL ROLES OF ENZYMES

1. Enzymes and nitrogen fixation
2.Enzymes and soil health. 3. Enzymes and plant defence mechanisms. 4. Enzymes and nutrient release

1. ENZYMES IN NITROGEN FIXATION
Enzymes play a crucial role in fixing Nitrogen into the soil. Nitrogen fixing enzymes produced by certain bacteria and legumineous plants, convert atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form for plant uptake. This process significantly contribute to soil fertility and reduces the need for synthetic nitrogen fertilizers.

2. ENZYMES AND SOIL HEALTH
Enzymes Contribute to soil health and soil fertility. They participate in organic matter decompostion. They accelerate the break down of crop residues and other plant materials. The decomposition process releases nutrient back into the soil and exchange it with vital elements for future plant growth.

3. ENZYMES AND PLANT DEFENCE MECHANISMS
When plants are attacked by pests and diseases, they produce defence related enzymes that counteract the damage caused. The enzymes help break down harmful substances, strengthen cell walls and trigger defensive responsiveness. It enhance the plants ability to respond and withstand stress.

4. ENZYMES AND NUTRIENT RELEASE
Enzymes help in the break down and release of nutrients from organic matter. Enzymes like cellulose, protease and amylase help break down complex molecules such as cellulose, proteins and starch respectively into simpler forms that plants can readily absorb and utilize.

SYSTEMATIC NAMING OF ENZYMES
Enzymes are named by adding the suffix “-ase” at the end of the substrate name.
For example, Lactase act on the substrate lactose

Lactose galactohydrolase (EC 3.2.1.190)
EC number: All enzymes are assigned an EC (Enzyme commission) number. It is defined as which reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme

Trypsin-EC3.4.21.5
3: describe the enzyme class (hydrolase)-hydrolysis reaction.
4: this is for the subclass ( acts on peptide bonds).So it is a peptide hydrolase
21: this denote its sub-subclass as a serine peptide
5: this denote the forth entry in the subclass

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING PRODUCTION AND EXPRESSION OF SOIL ENZYME ACTIVITIES

Soil enzyme activities may be affected by numerous factors of both natural (i.e. physio-geological, geographical or physic-chemical properties of soils, organic, clay or biomass contents etc.) and anthropogenic (agricultural management, environmental pollution, additives such as fertilisers, pesticides, salts, heavy metals, etc.) nature. These factors may influence the production, activity, catalytic behaviour and persistence of soil enzymes through different mechanisms involving direct, either reversible or irreversible, and indirect effects. Reversible or irreversible action on the catalytic active site of soil enzymatic activities as well as alteration of the protein conformation may occur.

CLIMATE: Climate can significantly affect the soil enzyme activity because soil enzymes are sensitive to temperature and precipitation. Studies have shown that at harsh climatic condition areas, the areas are characterized with less waste input, lower decomposability of organic residues, and reduced numbers of microorganisms and enzyme activity.
Both the production and turnover rates of enzymes are affected by temperature and moisture content; hence affected by season and climate change.
Temperature and moisture can affect both the overall rate of enzyme production and the relative quality of production of different enzymes because they influence enzyme efficiency, substrate availability, and microbial efficiency.
In addition, heat and extreme cold can alter the enzyme structure and substrate binding. Enzyme Activities decrease above and below optimum temperature.
SOIL pH: Most enzymes are sensitive to pH. They have a specific pH range and optimum pH of activity. Soil pH has substantial effects on the structure and diversity of soil bacterial communities, and a suitable pH can benefit microbial growth. thus, increasing the rate of residue decomposition and enzyme activities.
Soil enzyme function at varying pH values. For example, variation in pH do affect the activities of phosphatase, arylsulfatase, and amidase which are involved in phosphorus, sulfur and nitrogen cycle.

HEAVY METALS: Heavy metal pollution is a serious global environmental problem as it contributes to ecological disturbances. Toxic metals cause enzyme inactivation leading to changes in soil characteristics, limiting the productiveness and environmental functions. When materials containing heavy metals are added to the soil, they reduce enzyme activities due to their toxic effect on soil organisms and plant roots or they directly inhibit enzyme activities.

SOIL MOISTURE CONTENT: Activities of many enzymes are correlated with soil moisture content. for example, drought may suppress enzyme activities in drought prone areas.
SOIL TEXTURE: Soil texture have great effect on enzyme activities. for example, Clayey soils have greater ability to store organic matter that enhance microbial communities and clay from clay -enzyme complex. Sandy soil on the other hand exhibit low rate of enzyme activities because sandy soils are low in organic matter content and have low water holding capacity which makes it low in microbial biomas and therefore, low in enzyme activities
ORGANIC AMMENDMENTS: Application of organic ammendments coupled with good management practices increases soil organic matter which also result in increase in enzyme activities in the soil. Plant roots do stimulate enzymes activities because they bring about a positive effect in microbial activities and production of exhudates rich in substrates which are acted on by enzymes.
CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS: An increase in concentration of soil chemical compounds that are end products of enzymatic reactions can inhibit enzymatic activities by feedback inhibition. For example, phosphatase activities do increase in phosphorus deficient soils, and vice versa. Similarly, Urease activities may be suppresses by ammonia based nitrogen fertilizers because ammonium is the product of urease activities.
SOIL COMPACTION: Soil compaction do limit the activities of enzymes involved in nutrient mineralisation in soils because compaction result in reduction in soil oxygen which is required by soil aerobic organisms or reactions that require oxygen to activate. In contrast, anaerobic condition from compaction or water saturation increases enzymatic reaction rate related to denitrification.
EFFECTS OF ABSENT OF SOIL ENZYMES IN SOILS
Absent or suppression of soil enzymes in soils result in prevention or reduction in processes that affect plant nutrition. Poor enzyme activities for example, low pesticide or organic matter degradation enzymes can result in accumulation of harmful chemicals in the environment or accumulation of crop residues on top of the top soil layer. These harmful chemicals may therefore inhibit enzyme activities in the soil.

METHODS USED TO IMPROVE ENZYME AMOUNT AND ACTIVITIES IN THE SOIL
a. Crop rotation practices
b. Use of cover crops
c. Application of organic ammendments
d. Pasture helps in reducing soil disturbance and input animal manure in the soil
e. Liming to increase soil pH
HOW TO MEASURE SOIL ENZYMES
Soil enzymes are measured and determined in the laboratory using biochemical assey. The spectrophotometer, fume hood, centrifuge and or shaker, pH meter and thermometer are equipments used to determine or measure the amount of enzyme present in a soil.

In conclusion, Biochemical, chemical and physiochemical reactions that brings about the soil system and nutrient cycles are being mediated by soil microbs which employ several enzymes to complete the vital reactions. Enzymes are crucial catalysts needed in agricultural production. Farmers can promote sustainable farming practices, reduce reliance on synthetic inputs, enhance agricultural productivity and improve soil health and fertility by incorporating and understanding the relevance of enzymes as soil ammendments and other uses.

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Soil is a natural body comprised of three phases. The solids phase (minerals and organic matter), liquid phase, and gaseous phase. The solid phase is made up of layers which goes deep down untill the middle of the earth called core is reached. The soil horizons, or layers can be characterized and distinguished from one another based on materials added, losses and transfered causing a change in the layer colour.
One of the physical properties used to characterize and distinguish soil types and soil profile is the soil colour. It is a property that most reflects the pedogenic environment and history of the soil. It may be inherited from the parental material (i.e., lithocentric) or sometimes may be due to soil-forming processes (acquired or genetic colour). The colour of soil renders a valuable key for the identification of soil type.
Colour is an important characteristics of the soil used in assessment and classification of soils. It is used to determine the history, chemistry and hydrology of soils. An obvious change in colour between horizons is a real indication of changes in soil properties which are the result of biological activity, water movement and weathering. Also, soil temperature can determine soil colour. For example, cooler regions tend to have grayish to black topsoil due to the accumulation of humus. In moist, warm regions, soils tend to be more yellowish-brown to red depending on the hydration of ferric oxide and extensive weathering of the soil’s parental mineral. Rapid mineralization of organic matter content in warm, moist regions result in less humus accumulation, thus, resulting in insufficient impact on soil colour ( less dark colouration of soil). Arid soils tend to be light in colour with little staining from the little organic matter content of that region, thus,the colour of the minerals are visible.
Also, during rainfall, water temporarily darkens soil colour, increasing light absorption. Apart from this, moisture can have long-term effects on soil colour. For example, under anaerobic waterlogged conditions, iron oxides is reduced to occur the ferrous state, therefore, giving the soil a subtle bluish-gray tint. A mottled rusty or streaked appearance in a grayish matrix may indicate improper drained soils. A blackish colour in the absence of organic material may indicate staining by manganese oxides.
The main pigmenting (colouring) agents in soils are organic matter, iron, and, to a lesser extent, manganese. When these agents are not covering the mineral grains, the natural colour of the grains is visible. Most mineral grains are naturally gray.
Note that two soils may have similar texture and structure yet differ in color scheme. When a soil horizon has more than one colour, the dominant colour by volume is the matrix color.
In profile descriptions, the dominant soil colour (matrix color) is used to distinguish horizons and as an indicator of SOC content, drainage conditions, aeration, iron content or mineralogy. Soil color is a diagnostic criterion throughout Soil Taxonomy

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL COLOUR

1. Colour can be a useful indicator of some of the general properties of a soil,

2. It can as well indicate some of the chemical processes that are occurring beneath the surface.

3. It is an indicator of the levels of organic matter (peats) content of the soil.

4. It is used to distinguish soil horizons.

5. It can serve as indicator of the degree of aeration or reduction within the soil.

6. Soils with brighter colour indicate well drained soils. 7. Grey colour indicate wetter soils.

8. Farmers use it as a determinant of soil fertility without carrying out soil test.

9. It can be used to determine the rock from which a soil is formed from.

10. It is used to determine an aged long waterlogged area. for example, some wetlands etc

FACTORS THAT DETERMINES SOIL COLOUR
Some factors that influence the colour of a soil include:

1. Mineral matter derived from the constituents of the parent material.

2. Organic matter.

3. The nature and abundance of iron.

4. Moisture content.

5. Redox reactions.

6. Accumulation of materials like calcium, gypsum and salts

In a well drained soil, the dominant colours are : white, red, brown and black. White indicates the predominance of silica (quartz), or the presence of salts; red indicates the accumulation of iron oxide; and brown and black indicate the level and type of organic matter. Soil organic matter and iron oxides contribute most to soil colour. Organic matter darkens soil, while iron oxides produce a range of soil colours that are dependent on the oxidation state of the iron.

MINERAL MATTER: Soils are formed from rocks. These rocks are composed of various minerals that appear in various colours. Some of these minerals include hornblend, micas, chlorite, hematite etc. Soils formed from rocks containing these minerals exhibit the colour of the minerals. soils formed from rocks containing; quartz appear clear or transparent, feldspars appear white or pink, muscovite appear silvery and sparkly, magnetite appears metallic, and biotite and other mafic minerals appear black, chlorite appear green and hematite appear red. Therefore, minerals found in rocks determines the colour of the soil.

ORGANIC MATTER: Humus is formed from the decomposition of organic matter. When these humus are formed, the colour is black. Soils on which the decomposition of organic materials take place to form humus are imparted with colour that changes from brown to black. Also, the soil grains can be coated with the humus which turns the soil colour to black.

NATURE AND ABOUNDANCE OF IRON: Some soils contain iron. This iron appear in various colours such as; red, yellow, grey, and yellowish grey. When soils are partially filled with air and moisture, the iron turns to yellowish oxides changing, thus, the colour of the soil to yellow. When the soil is drained and dry, the iron turns to a reddish oxide, thus, changing the colour of the soil to red. When the soil is waterlogged under anaerobic condition, the iron is reduced and changes the colour of the soil to grey orsoil is formed. green or bluish-grey. Humid acid with connection with iron produces dark coloured soils. When a physical and chemical combination of iron and organic matter occurs, a brownish shade of

MOISTURE CONTENT: When moist soils dry up gradually, the colour of the soil darkens. Poorly drained soils possesses a bluish-grey colour with yellowish mottling. When the soil is dry, the colour brightens up.

REDOX REACTIONS: Redox reactions in soil involves reduction-oxidation processes. These two processes are due to changes in soil oxygen levels caused by water-filled pores or air-filled pores. When water fills pore spaces, creating a water pool on the surface, oxygen diffuses slowly into the water, and soil microorganisms uses up the existing oxygen supply causing reduced or anaerobic conditions. If reduced iron with the anaerobic soil condition reaches oxygen, like coming in contact with the plant root or near the top of the water table, the iron becomes oxidized, turning the colour of the soil to red.

ACCUMULATION OF MATERIALS: When calcium or gypsum accumulate at the soil horizons due to leaching, the colour of the soil found at that horizon will turn whitish especially with soils at semi-arid areas. Also, water can transport salts and cause salinity. The deposited salt will cause soils at that landscape to turn whitish. Along valley bottoms, the high rate of organic matter deposition do cause the soils of the valley to turn blackish, indicating a fertile soil.

HOW TO DETERMINE AND MEASURE SOIL COLOUR In determining and describing soil profile and landscape, soil properties including soil colour must always be observed throughout the soil profile. The soil colour can be determined when the soil is moist and not sliced or dry. Colour characteristics such as mottle size, percentage and contrast are usually observed and recorded. One of the tools used is the colour triangle.

The colour triangle can be used to show the names and relationships between the influential colours.
Also, a system that involves the use of a specially printed colour charts (Munsell Soil Colour Charts) is an international standard tool. It divides colour into wavelength, lightness, and colour saturation.
Where a Munsell Chart is not available, simple names as listed in the colour triangle can be used.
The Munsell colour chart is a booklet formed from the complete edition of the Munsell Book of Colour (vide US Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 18: Soil Survey Manual) and consists of seven soil colour charts popularly called “Soil Collection Display 199.” Each soil colour chart (in the form of a loose leaflet) consists of different standard colour chips systematically arranged according to Munsell’s notations.

The Munsell notation system is subjected to various factors before reading can be possible. Some of the factors include: soil moisture condition, quality of light, the time of the day, and degree of crushing and the grain coatings. Another factor that can cause limitation is that the Munsell system with its hue, value and chroma notations cannot directly be used in numerical analysis.
To determine soil colours, soil samples are collected and compared with printed colour chips in the Munsell soil colour charts.
The colour system is expressed in terms of hue (basic color), value (lightness or darkness), and chroma (intensity of basic hue). These three simple variables combine to give all colours. Hue is the dominant spectral (rainbow) colour; it is related to the dominant wavelength of the light. Value refers to the relative lightness of the colour and is a function (approximately the square root) of the total amount of light. Chroma is the relative purity or strength of the spectral colour and increases with decreasing grayness.
Only air-dried bulk soil samples are used. But this had being subjected to various questioning because most of the colour of a bulk soil sample is due to the clay fraction, which contains clay particles intimately bound to soil humus (forming the clay–humus complex) and clay particles coated with humus.

READING OF THE MUNSELL COLOUR CHART
Standard notation used to indicate a soil’s colour is as follows and it is formatted in the following ways:

From the page chips in fig 5;

Page/Value/Chroma

Example: 7.5YR 2/1

PAGE: mix of colours or hue. Each page represents a different hue. At the top left is the hue value. (7.5YR)
VALUE: lightness or darkness (/2)
CHROMA: intensity (/1)

Note that: Coloured mixture at varying amount of pigmentation materials can also occur in the soil to form a hue colour.

EFFECTS OF SOIL COLOUR

● Colour influences the rate of soil warming and cooling. Dark soils, irrespective of moisture content, absorb more heat than reflect them in light-coloured soils. Soils with higher moisture content and darker in colour absorb more solar radiation, but warm more slowly than drier soils do. This is due to the high specific heat of water—it consumes large amounts of energy during warming. Consequently, the surfaces of sandy and coarse soils both warm and cool more rapidly than clayey soils of the same colour.
Rapid cooling (heat loss) of the soil at night can generate significant warming of the air and fruit close to the ground. ● Reflective ground cover can slow warming of the soil during the spring but moderate its decline during the fall.
● living mulches, when decomposing can darken the soil, causing it to warm up as more heat are absorbed.
● Soil colour is an indicator of soil health. Farmers consider a healthy soil as one that is black, grey, brown, or dark-coloured whereas unhealthy soils are red, yellow, white or light-coloured.
● Soil colour reflects the predominant soil parent material in an area and the organic matter (OM) content. 
● At forest areas, the dark surface colours of forest soils, particularly soils beneath productive hardwoods, are usually dark due to high amount of organic matter and organic matter coatings of mineral surfaces. Even low concentrations of this organic matter can create dark-coloured soils.

In conclusion, colour is important as characteristic for recognizing and describing soil profiles in all soil classification approaches. Additionally, colour can affect thermal properties of soils. Dark surface soil colours promote soil warming and biological activity in cool climates.

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