Ostriches (Struthio camelus) are large flightless birds found only in Africa. They belong to the Class : Aves (Birds), group of flightless birds called ratites, family Struthionidae, order Struthioniformes and genus Struthio. Other members in the group include kiwis, emus, cassowaries, and rheas.
The species name, ‘camelus’ was derived from camel name. The ostrich was once known as the “camel bird” because of its long neck, prominent eyes, and sweeping eyelashes, as well as its jolting walk. This characteristics of the bird initiated the species name.
WEIGTH AND SPEED : Ostrich are referred to as races of Struthio camelus.They are the heaviest and largest living birds, with adult ostriches weighing between 63.5 and 150 kilograms and laying the largest eggs of any living land animal. An adult male may be 2.75 metres (about 9 feet) tall and weigh more than 150 kg (330 pounds). They have the ability to run at 70 km/h (43.5 mph), making them the fastest birds on land. But when frightened, they can achieve a speed of 72.5 km (45 miles) per hour. Just one stride can be 10 to 16 feet (3 to 5 meters) long. The one month old chicks can run at speeds of about 35 miles per hour (56 kilometers per hour).
The ostrich’s egg, averaging about 150 mm (6 inches) in length by 125 mm (5 inches) in diameter and about 1.35 kg (3 pounds), is also the world’s largest.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE:
The male is mostly black but has white plumes in the wings and tail; females are mostly brown. They possess long neck. The head and most of the neck are reddish to bluish in colour. They possess big brown eyes with thick black lashes. Their legs are strong and long with unique two-toed. The main toe developed almost as a hoof, to escape its enemies mainly humans and lions. If cornered, it can deliver dangerous kicks.
FEATHERS: Ostrich feathers are loose, soft, and smooth and do not hook together unlike in other birds. This makes ostriches look “shaggy”. They do not have uropygial or preen glands which secretes waxy oil to the plumage as found in other birds. Therefore, their feathers can get soaked in the rain because it is not waterproof. Adult male ostriches have striking black-and-white plumage; immature birds and adult females have grayish brown feathers.
Ostriches live in groups, which helps with defense. They cannot fly to escape from their enemies. They possess wings which they use to maintain balance when they run, especially when they suddenly change direction. Along with the tail feathers, both are used for displaying and courtship.
TERRITORIALITY: Ostrich shows dominance by raising its head up high and lifting its wings and tail feathers. They show submission by drooping down their head, wings, and tail feathers.
The dominant male defends the territory of about 10 to 15 flocks made up of a dominant female called the “main or alpha hen,” and other females.
Only the alpha hen mates with the territorial male. Other females in the flock may mate with the territorial male or other wandering males that comes during breeding season. The other females in the flock do lay their eggs in the same nest with the main hen’s eggs. Such nest is called communal “dump” nest. It is the joint responsibility of the alpha hen and the territorial male to incubate the eggs. They both share the tasks of incubating the eggs and caring for the chicks. The territorial male lay on the eggs at night while the alpha hen takes the turn during the day till the eggs hatch.
An ostrich hen can lay between 7 to 10 eggs at a time. After the eggs hatch, the chicks leave the nest to travel with their parents. The adults use their wings to protect them from sun and rain. When predators are nearby, the male ostrich reacts with an alarm sound. It will also outstretched its neck and open its mouth . This it does to distract and divert the predator’s attention, so the chicks can scatter into the grass or run for cover, accompanied by the females.
PEOPLE’S MYTH ABOUT OSTRICH :People’s believe is that ostriches bury their heads in the sand. This is not true. When an ostrich senses danger and cannot run away, it flops to the ground and remains still, with its head and neck laid flat on the ground in front of it. Because the head and neck are lightly coloured, they blend in with the colour of the soil. From a distance, it just looks like the ostrich has buried its head in the sand, while the body is visible.
Enemies of ostrich include human, lion etc. Hyenas, jackals, and vultures do feed on ostrich eggs.
FEEDING: Ostriches are omnivores. They feed on vegetation, snakes, lizards, rodents and insects. They tolerate high temperatures and can go without water for long periods of time. Breeding males emit lionlike roars and hisses as they fight for a harem of three to five hens. When the female hen wants to lay eggs, nest are made in the ground. The hen can lay more than a dozen shiny, whitish eggs. Most times, the hen of the harem would get rid of some of the eggs to make incubation more manageable. Both the male and female carry out the incubation activity together. The male sits on the eggs by night while the females take turns during the day. The chicks hatch in about 40 days.
CHARACTERISTICS OF OSTRICH SPECIES
The following are summary of the characteristics of the ostrich:
1. They feed on plants and insects
2. They can live for between 50 to 70 years
3. The males and the females can be distinguished by the colour of their feathers. Males have black feathers and white feathers on their wings while females have brown feathers.
4. Ostrich start mating at 2 to 3 years of age. 5. They start egg laying between April and August
BENEFITS OF OSTRICH
1. Ostriches are raised for their meat and hide, which provides a soft, fine-grained leather. Ostrich leather are strong and durable and it is water resistant.
2. Ostriches are trained for saddle and sulky racing, but easily they become tired and are not well suited for training.
3. They do well in captivity and may live up to 50 years.
4. Their big egg is a good source of protein, saturated fatty acids, iron, vitamin and E and selenium. An ostrich egg is equivalent to 24 fowl eggs.
5. Young ostrich can be hatched from eggs and sold as source of income.
6. Lots of farmers now raise ostrich as a source of employment and livelihood
7. Some wealthy individuals keep ostrich as pets. Some use them as security pets.
8. The egg shell and bones are a good source of calcium.
9. Their meat is low in cholesterol than other meats.
10. Ostrich feathers are used as fan and hat designs by royal families in some countries. They are also used to make dusters, decoration, and fashion and costume designs.
11. Ostrich skin is used for making leather and
luxury commodities like bags, shoes, jackets and other accessories.
12. The empty shells are used for decoration or craft projects
13. Ostrich oil is used for medicinal purposes. In Tanzania, the oil is used to treat ear aches and asthma ailment and muscle spasms.
14. The oil has antioxidant properties, and they are widely used in the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries.
15. Grease and oil obtained from wild birds like ostrich is used for massage in muscle aches and in cases of burns.
16. Unlike other domestic birds, ostrich has a breeding period between April to August. While other birds have breeding periods through out the year.
17. Eating the eggs of ostrich helps to reduce the risk of cancer and heart diseases.
18. The nutrients in ostrich eggs help to nourish the skin, nails and hair making them healthy.
BENEFITS OF OSTRICH FARMING
Ostrich farming originated from South Africa. The following are benefits of ostrich farming :
1. SUSTAINABILITY : Ostrich farming is a sustainable livestock farming. Lesser spaces are required for raising the birds. The ostrich farming helps people to meet their need in terms of food need, decoration, and valuable items needed for livelihood and revenue generation for countries.
2. PROFITABLE FARMING : Ostrich farming is a good source of valuable items like hides, feathers, bones and meat. The feathers and hides are valued in the fashion industries. A chick of ostrich can be sold to farmers and also within 6 months, the chick would have nearly reach the size of the adult ostrich. They can lay about 15 to 50 eggs per season. Younger females can lay 10 to 15 eggs while adult females can lay 40 to 50 eggs per season. By selling these eggs or hatching them and selling the chicks, the farmer will make great profit.
3. ALTERNATIVE SOURCE OF PROTEIN: Protein is needed for cells and tissue growth and development. Lots of people are looking for alternative source of protein to ruminants meat, and poultry meats and eggs. Such is the meat and eggs from ostrich farming. Many people are also interested in changing taste from animal protein which ostrich can give.
3. MULTIPLE COMMODITY PRODUCTION: Commodities from ostrich farming include meat, bones, eggs, feathers and hides. Commodities like eggs and feathers can be sourced from ostrich without harming them. These commodities can be sold to make higher profit before final slaughtering of the bird. This makes the farming a sustainable venture.
4. DROUGHT TOLERANCE: Just like camels that can go long distance without water, so is ostrich. They require water but less for survival. Most water taken are from the plants they consumed. Compared to other livestock with water being essential in their production, less water is required in ostrich farming. Other livestock cannot tolerate drought.
5. HIGH GROWTH RATE: The growth rate of chick ostrich is faster, and the reproductive rate is higher.
The chicks grow at a rate of 1 foot (30 centimeters) per month, and by 6 months of age they would have attain almost the size of their parents. By two years, the hen begin to lay eggs ( about 10 to 15 eggs per season) while the adult can lay up to 50 eggs per season.
6. SOURCE OF EMPLOYMENT : Ostrich is an important source of rural employment . In recent decades, there has been a growing interest in ostrich farming that provide healthy meat and valuable skins, feathers, eggs and oil. People now see the venture as being profitable and economical.
7. SELF PROTECTION: Ostrich has good eye sight and they can sight predators miles away. This will make them take to their heels. They are fast runner and they can give a blow kick that can kill a lion if cornered.
8. VALUABLE AND DIVERSE RESOUCES: Ostriches are Majorly farmed for their meat, eggs and feathers which are used for various purposes from food to cosmetics and phermacautical industries.
SPECIES OF OSTRICH
There are five species of ostrich. They include: blue necked ostrich,
Arabian ostrich,
black necked ostrich,
Masal ostrich and
Red neck ostrich.
The Arabian ostrich is now extinct. Therefore, only four species now exist.
In conclusions, ostrich are quite easy to raise and manage than other livestock. Not much maintenance is required by the birds. The farming is highly lucrative as it provides products like meat, eggs, bones, feathers and lots more.
OSTRICHES DISEASES
Ostrich diseases include:
i. Viral infections such as Newcastle disease, avian influenza, and Borna disease;
ii. Bacterial infections like anthrax and E. coli;
iii. Parasitic infections such as tapeworms and lice; and iv. Non-infectious conditions like ionophore poisoning and candidiasis. All affected the production of ostrich.
a. OSTRICH POX (RATITE POX): Ostrich pox is a viral skin and mucosal infection caused by the avian poxvirus, similar to fowl pox in fowl. It causes proliferative and nodular lesions ( that is, blister-like lesions/scabs ) on unfeathered parts (face, neck), head and in the mouth. It is often spread by mosquitoes. Infection is spread by direct and indirect contact and egg transmission.
CAUSES AVIPOXVIRUS: Ostrich pox is caused by avipoxvirus, which is closely related to the fowl poxvirus found in fowl.
TRANSMISSION: The virus is often spread by mosquitoes. The spread can be through direct contact with infected birds and indirectly through contaminated feed and water. It can also be transmitted from an infected hen to its chick through the egg.
SYMPTOMS
i. CUTANEOUS (DRY) POX: Proliferative and nodular lesions appear on the skin, especially on the beak, eyes, and other featherless parts of the head.
ii. DIPHTHERITIC (WET) POX: Whitish, diphtheritic (diphtheria-like) and nodular lesions can be found in the oral cavity, pharynx, and trachea.
TREATMENT
i. Though there is no specific treatment for the avipovirus infection but prevention, which focuses on biosecurity and potentially vaccination with a fowl pox vaccine.
ii. SUPPORTIVE CARE: Infected birds may receive antibiotics and multivitamins, but the disease is often self-limiting, with growths regressing over time. PREVENTION
i. BIOSECURITY: Implementing strict farm management practices, including isolating infected birds and preventing contamination of feed and water, is crucial.
ii. VACCINATION: The fowl pox vaccine are made commercially and are used in ostriches to provide protection against the virus. It is often given to young chicks (around 10-14 days old).
PROGNOSIS ( Prediction of its occurrence)
i. SELF-LIMITING: Mild cases are often self-limiting, with lesions regressing within weeks or months.
ii. SECONDARY INFECTIONS: Exposed or damaged lesions can lead to secondary bacterial or fungal infections, complicating recovery.
iii. PROSTRATION AND MORTALITY: In advanced cases, especially in young chicks, birds may become prostrate, refuse to eat or drink, and die.
b. CLOSTRIDIAL DISEASES (LIKE ENTEROTOXEMIA)
Clostridial diseases in ostriches are are serious bacterial diseases. They are severe, often fatal gastrointestinal illnesses caused primarily by the bacteria Clostridium perfringens, leading to necrotic enteritis. Clostridium difficile can also cause similar necrotic enteritis-like lesions in chicks, leading to acute diarrhea and high mortality.
CAUSES
Clostridium species are usually widespread in environment where Ostrich are reared and are part of the normal gut microbiota in animals and humans. The disease is often triggered by stress, such as sudden changes in diet. Overcrowding can also contribute to the spread of the disease.
COMMON CLOSTRIDIAL DISEASES
i. NECROTIC ENTERITIS (NE): This is the most common form, caused by C. perfringens.
ii. PATHOGENESIS: The bacteria destroy the intestinal lining by releasing toxins. It affect both adult and young chicks
iii. NECROTIZING ENTERITIS CAUSED BY C. difficile: This has been observed in newly hatched ostrich chicks. It affects newly hatched chicks the most. DIAGNOSIS
Diagnosis is based on a combination of clinical signs and pathological findings. Veterinary laboratories can also isolate and identify the Clostridium species responsible.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
This include: depression, anorexia, severe diarrhea, and rapid death, especially in young birds.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT
i. STRESS REDUCTION : Minimizing stress from sudden diet changes is crucial for prevention.
ii. VACCINATION : Live vaccines for enterotoxemia are used in some countries. The vaccines are given in schedule doses. The first dose may be given as early as one week old, followed by a booster dose a few weeks later. For the growing birds (A few weeks to a few months old), they get the first few doses and booster shots after administration of the Newcastle disease and other major vaccines. A booster shot is given which is like a second training session for the immune system to make the “shield” much stronger and longer-lasting. For adults (Breeders/Older Birds), they need annual or semi-annual booster shots for the major diseases (especially Newcastle Disease) to maintain strong immunity.
( Note: Always consult your ostrich veterinarian when rearing Ostrich)
iii. ANTIBIOTICS : Antibiotics such as ampicillin or bacitracin have been used in treatment via drinking water.
iv. HYGIENE : Good hygiene practices in farms can help prevent transmission.
NEWCASTLE DISEASE
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) is a para-myxo virus that causes Newcastle disease, a contagious and potentially fatal disease in many bird species, including domestic poultry like ostrich. It affects the respiratory, digestive, and nervous systems, leading to significant economic losses in ostrich farming.
SYMPTOMS
Can cause severe damage to respiratory, digestive, and nervous systems. Symptoms can vary depending on the virus strain’s pathogenicity, but it often results in significant illness and death.
IN HUMANS: It can cause conjunctivitis (pink eye) in people who are not wearing proper protective eyewear, such as laboratory workers or farm workers handling infected birds.
TRANSMISSION
i. HIGHLY CONTAGIOUS: Transmitted between birds through various routes.
ii. HUMAN EAT: The risk to the general public is minimal, but those working directly with affected birds or in laboratories should take precautions, such as wearing gloves and protective eyewear.
CONTROL AND PREVENTION
Control measures for NDV include vaccination and strict biosecurity, as there is no known treatment. Some prevention measures include:
i. VACCINATION: Vaccination is a primary method of prevention.
ii. BIOSECURITY: Strict biosecurity measures are essential for controlling outbreaks and preventing transmission.
iii. INFECTED BIRDS SHOULD BE CULLING: In outbreak situations, infected and susceptible birds in the surrounding area may be culled to prevent the spread of the disease.
BORNA DISEASE
Borna disease is a neurological syndrome affecting young birds, spread by rodents and felines, and reported in regions like Israel. It is caused by Borna disease virus (BDV) that primarily affected young ostriches in the 80s and 90s in Isreal. It causes paresis and death within weeks of infection. The disease can also affect other animals like horses and sheep. But in Ostriches, it is primarily presented with sudden-onset paralysis and inability to stand.
DIAGNOSIS
This relies on serological, histopathological, and RT-PCR findings,
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS IN OSTRICHES
i. PARESIS: The most common sign is a sudden onset of paresis, or weakness, leading to an inability to stand.
ii. INCOORDINATION: Some birds showed signs of incoordination a few days before paresis.
iii. NORMAL APPETITE: In the early stages, appetite, vision, and hearing remained normal.
iv. SECONDARY COMPLICATIONS: Inability to defecate and urinate ultimately led to death within a few weeks.
v. RELAPSES: Some ostriches that survived with intensive care relapsed months later.
TREATMENT AND CONTROL
Treatment involved supportive care and serum therapy, which helped control the outbreaks.
i. SUPPORTIVE CARE: Intensive supportive care can be given for the survival of affected birds.
ii. SERUM THERAPY: The introduction of serum therapy in the early 1990s significantly improved the control of the disease outbreaks.
iii. BIOSECURITY: Strict hygienic measures and biosecurity should be maintained on the farm.
EQUINE ENCEPHALOMYELITIS
Ostriches can contract Eastern Equine Encephalitis (EEE), a mosquito-borne viral disease that affects birds and mammals in America. While ostriches are considered “ratites” and emus are especially vulnerable. Neurological signs like depression and paralysis can occur in infected birds. The virus cycles between wild birds (the natural reservoir) and mosquitoes, which transmit it to other animals like ostriches, horses, and humans.
DIAGNOSIS
This involves serological or viral detection, with no specific treatment available.
TRANSMISSION
i. MOSQUITO-BORNE:
EEE is transmitted through the bite of an infected mosquito. Certain mosquito species, like Culiseta melanura, are the primary vectors, but others can transmit the virus.
ii. WILD BIRDS: Wild birds are the natural hosts, or reservoirs, for the EEE virus.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS IN OSTRICHES
Neurological symptoms are common in infected birds.
These can include severe depression, changes in vision, circling, head pressing, muscle twitching, inability to swallow, and paralysis.
CONTROL AND PREVENTION
The primary transmitters are mosquitoes, therefore, control should target this primary transmitter.
i. MOSQUITO CONTROL:
Decreasing contact with mosquito populations is the primary method for controlling the spread of EEE.
ii. VACCINATION: While not mentioned for ostriches specifically, the EEE vaccine is recommended for horses.
iii. BIOSECURITY: Limiting exposure to body fluids (feces, blood, saliva) from infected birds can help prevent further spread.
TREATMENT
There is no specific treatment for EEE; care is supportive.
Other viral diseases that infect ostriches include: Adenovirus and Coronavirus Infections,
Avipoxvirus.
ANTHRAX
Anthrax is a zoonotic disease, meaning it can be transmitted to humans. In ostriches, it is a bacterial disease, caused by Bacillus anthracis, that is often fatal and presents as sudden death or fever. Unlike most birds, ostriches can be susceptible to the infection due to their lower body temperature.
Humans can become infected through contact with infected animals, contaminated animal products, or exposure to anthrax spores.
CAUSES AND SUSCEPTIBILITY
The disease is caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis.
Ostriches are susceptible to anthrax because their lower body temperature makes them vulnerable to the bacteria, whereas most other birds are naturally resistant.
SYMPTOMS
Anthrax in ostriches typically results in sudden death or fever.
TREATMENT AND CONTROL
The disease can be treated with antibiotics, and control measures include annual vaccination and strict quarantine of affected animals to prevent the spread to other livestock and humans.
i. ANTIBIOTICS: The infection can respond well to antibiotic therapy, making prompt treatment crucial.
ii. VACCINATION: PREVENTIVE vaccination is the primary control measure for animals in affected areas.
iii. QUARANTINE: Strict quarantine measures are essential to isolate infected animals, preventing further spread to other livestock and humans.
iv. CARCASS DISPOSAL:
Proper disposal of carcasses from infected animals is vital to avoid environmental contamination.
v. ANTE-MORTEM EXAMINATION: Thorough examination of birds before slaughter is necessary to prevent the spread of the disease.
PARASITIC DISEASES
Parasitic Diseases in ostriches are caused by organisms like Tapeworms, lice etc.
i. Tapeworms can cause significant harm by creating wounds in the bowel wall, allowing for germ invasion.
ii. Lice like the ostrich feather louse (Struthiolipeurus struthionis) do prey on ostriches.
NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES
Apart from the infectious diseases. there are also non-infectious diseases that affect ostrich farming. Such include:
i. IONOPHORE TOXICOSIS
: Poisoning from ionophores, common feed additives, can cause gastrointestinal, neurological, and muscular effects.
ii. CANDIDA: A fungal infection treated by ensuring a dry environment.
iii. YOLK SAC INFECTION : Occurs in chicks, although the incidence is generally low.
PREVENTION AND CONTROL FOR THE NON INFECTIOUS DISEASES.
i. BIOSECURITY : Implementing strict measures to control animal movement, improving sanitation, and proper waste disposal.
ii. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT : Reducing overcrowding, optimizing ventilation, and providing a clean, dry environment.
iii. VACCINATION : Vaccinating ostriches against prevalent pathogens as part of a comprehensive health plan.
iv. NUTRITION AND MANAGEMENT : Educating farmers on proper feeding and management practices to improve flock health.
